Cold fusion
This is the first article of several describing the CNF experiments which
have been done to date. It is certainly not comprehensive, although I
would like it to be. If you have data on experiments I haven't listed,
or corrections or additions to the ones I have, PLEASE send me mail.
This article covers the "Fleischmann-Pons"-type experiments. Future
articles will cover the Jones- and Frascatti-type experiments, and
other CNF-relevant experiments, such as muon bombardment of D-saturated
palladium and ion-beam implantation of D in Pd foils. There will also
be articles on materials technology, cathode poisoning, CNF theory, and
a bibliography. As corrections and additions are added, I will send out
patches to these articles, and I'll repost the articles in their entirety
when it seems warranted.
I would have liked to acknowledge all the people who posted this
information, but assembling this has been enough of a nightmare
without trying to drag attributions along. My thanks to all those
who have contributed by posting summaries of the meetings and tidbits
from local papers, and who have given up their free time to do
research on this. Maybe, in a future edition of this, I'll be
able to acknowledge all the individuals who have helped out here.
IF YOU HAVE HARD INFORMATION ON ANY CNF EXPERIMENT WHICH IS
NOT INCLUDED HERE, OR ADDITIONS OR CORRECTIONS, PLEASE LET ME KNOW.
--
Dave Mack
csu@alembic.acs.com (703)734-0877 (home)
uunet!inco!alembic!csu (703)883-3911 (work)
6611 Byrnes Dr.
McLean VA 22101
-------------------------------- cut here --------------------------------
1.0 EXPERIMENTS
Cold fusion related experiments are divided into four categories:
1. F&P
2. Jones
3. Scaramuzzi
4. Other
These distinctions are somewhat artificial, given the similarity between
the F&P experiments and the Jones experiments. To further clarify: the
F&P class of experiments use simple electrolytes, require long chargeup
times, and seem to require high current densities, while the Jones
experiments use more complicated electrolytes, require little chareup
time, and operate at low current densities. The Scaramuzzi class of
experiments do not use electrolysis, but rely on pressure-charging
of the lattice followed by temperature fluctuations to induce fusion.
1.1 Fleischmann-Pons Experiments
1.1.1 Fleischmann and Pons, University of Utah, USA
Electrolyte: 0.1M LiOD in 99.5% D2O, 0.5% H2O
Material: Pd [purity/contaminants unspecified.]
Excess Heat Production:
1x1x1 cm cube:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
125 WARNING: IGNITION?
0.2x8x8 cm sheet:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
0.8 0.153 ? (0)
1.2 .027 .0021
1.6 0.79 .0061
0.4x10 cm rod:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
8 0.153 0.122
64 1.751 1.39
512* 26.8 21.4
0.2x10 cm rod:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
8 0.036 0.115
64 0.493 1.57
512* 3.02 9.61
0.1x10 cm rod:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
8 0.0075 0.095
64 0.079 1.01
512* 0.654 8.33
* - 512 ma/cm**2 measurements performed on samples 1.25 cm long
and rescaled to 10 cm. [No details given.]
Gamma production:
Cathode: Pd 0.8x10 cm rod "charged to equilibrium".
Detector: NaI crystal scintillation detector and Nuclear Data
ND-6 High Energy Spectrum Analyzer over water bath.
Results: Gamma peak at 2.22 MeV
[These results are believed to be erroneous]
Neutron production:
Cathode: 0.4x10 cm Pd rod
Current density: 64 mA/cm**2
Detector: Harwell Neutron Dose Equivalent Rate Monitor,
Type 95/0945-5 [BF3-filled Bonner sphere.]
Results: 4E4 /sec
Tritium production:
Cathode: 0.1x10 cm Pd rod
Detector: Ready Gel liquid scintillator/Beckman LS 5000 TD counter
Electrolyte neutralized by addition of potassium hydrogen phthalate.
Results: 100 dpm/ml [This is approximately the value of background
tritium found in the heavy water at Texas A&M Univ.]
Helium production:
Walling and Simons of the University of Utah measured He-4
in the evolved gases from one of Pons' cells which had been
producing excess heat for a "long time" and found a He-4:D2
ratio of 10**-5. The D2 and He-4 peaks were clearly separated.
Control experiments were performed on "dud" cells and cells
which had just started to produce excess heat. No He-4 was
found in either case. The mass spec cells were baked to remove
He-4 impurities.
Miscellaneous:
At a talk at CERN, Fleischmann claimed that it had taken them
three months to achieve a loading factor (D/Pd) of 0.6.
Pons stated that they had performed a control experiment using
H2O and had found no excess heat production.
Walling claims that F&P don't bake their electrodes
because this can cause impurities to migrate to the
cathode surface, yielding dud cells.
Since publication, Pons has, at various times, claimed:
1) to be producing 8 times as much energy as they put in
2) sustained reactions continuously for 800 hours
3) they are now seeing 67 watts/cm3
4) Energy coming out of system is fairly constant, but in some
situations there are large bursts of energy.
5) The bursts are enormous and, if persistent, are capable of
literally boiling the cell out at a very low voltage.
6) One cell, running at 32 degrees [C. ?] for 5 1/2 million
seconds [about 2 months], suddenly burst up to 60 degrees and
remained at that temperature for several hours.
7) Bursts of neutrons and other radioactive particles have been
seen.
8) Some bursts have lasted long enough to enable scientists to
go into the machine to check instruments.
9) The heat output from the sustained bursts over a two-day
period have [sic] been between 1,000 and 5,000 percent more
than the input.
10) A burst of excess heat of 1 W lasting 2E5 sec. and producing
4.2 MJ. [These numbers don't quite make sense.]
1.1.2. Kuzmin, Moscow State University, USSR
Neutron production and "enough heat to boil water"
in his cell. They claim to have detected neutrons at 3 to 5
times background from both palladium and titanium electrodes
using currents of up to 300,000 amps. [At 3E5 amps, I'm not
surprised the water boiled.]
1.1.3. Chudakov, Byelorussian State University, USSR
"different electrodes and currents" with a "stable
effect in each case".
1.1.4. Mathews, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research, India
Titanium and platinum electrodes.
D2O containing 0.2 percent Ni and Pd chlorides.
Neutron flux 30% greater than background.
1.1.5. Santhanam, Tata Institute for Fundamental Research, India
"a 400% energy gain"
1.1.6. Unknown, Bhabha Atomic Research Center, India
"net energy output"
1.1.7. Unknown, Comenius University, Czechoslavakia
"sketchy report of success"
1.1.8. Unknown, Lajos Kossuth University, Hungary
"rough confirmations of neutron flux but no heat
measurements"
1.1.9. Unknown, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
In Brazil, researchers at the Institute of Physics of
the University of Sao Paulo working jointly with the
Institute of Nuclear and Energy Research there, said they had
also measured neutrons from an attempt to duplicate the
Pons-Fleischmann experiment. They said the levels of neutrons
obtained were twice as large as the background level.
1.1.10. Unknown, Institute of Space Research, Brazil
"neutron output but no heat measurement"
1.1.11. Huggins, Stanford University, USA
Cathodes: Pd disks 2mm x (10 - 20 mm; variously reported)
Electrolyte:
Results: 50% more heat from D2O than H2O control.
15% excess energy in 35 hour runs and 10 MJ/mole Pd
in longer runs.
Max. excess heat was 1.2 watts.
Miscellaneous:
Adding H2O to a running cell eliminated excess heat production.
Cathodes were completely submerged.
Used gyroscopic motion of entire apparatus, including water bath,
to ensure stirring of cell.
The Heavy water cells begin with exactly the same result
as the light water cells then, after 30 to 60 hours, the heat
production goes up from the endothermically-depressed value,
through the break even value that one would have if no gas was
being evolved, past this point into an excess (above electrical
input) value by about 12%. Later in his talk he says that the
excess heat has continued to climb with time and showed the
excess heat graph with a penciled-in point from data taken
the previous day with 22% excess heat shown.
A heat-producing cathode which is removed from the electrolyte,
exposed to "wet air", and then returned will no longer show
excess heat.
1.1.12. Appleby, Texas A&M University, USA
Cathodes: Pd - .5x10 mm wire, 1x10 mm wire, 2 mm sphere
Calorimeter: Tronac Model 350 microcalorimeter (1 uW - 8 W +/- 3 uW)
Electrolytes:
(7.5 - 8.0 ml) 0.1M LiOD, 0.1M LiOH, 0.1M NaOD, 1.0M LiOD
Controls: H2O , Pt cathodes
Heat production:
Of 20 cells, 1/3 show excess heat, up to 30 mW (10% heat excess).
Up to 20 W/cm**3 of Pd for 10 hrs at 300, 600, 1000 mA/cm**2.
30 - 40 mW for several days at a time with LiOD.
5 - 8 mW with NaOD.
[It is alleged that experiments were done with depleted lithium
(>99% Li-7), yielding slightly less excess heat than with normal
lithium (~8% Li-6.)]
They claimed that there was no recombination of D2 and O2
above the 1% level.
Cathode Anode Electrolyte Current Density Excess Heat Rate
mA/cm**2 W/cm**3 of Pd
------- ----- ----------- --------------- ----------------
Pd 300 16.3
0.5mm dia. Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 19.3
10mm long 1000 18.5
Pd
same Pt 0.1M LiOH 600 0
Pt
same Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 0
Pd
1.0mm dia. Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 4-7
10mm long
Pd
2.0mm dia. Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 6-12
sphere
------------------------------------------------------------------
Neutron production:
None of the heat-producing cells show neutron emission.
Helium production:
He-3: < 3.0E9 / cm**3
He-4: < 0.3E9 / cm**3
"The lower bounds were< 0.2-1.2 * 10**9 atoms in samples with
masses between 8.79 and 14.49 mg."
1.1.13. Wolf, Texas A&M University, USA
Cathodes: Pd rods of 1/2 to 6 mm diameter and Ti rods of 1/2 to 3 mm
diameter.
2 live cells out of 20, 1 reproducibly.
Neutron production:
Neutron flux changes in a non-monotonic way with current and
falls off as 1/r**2 when the cell is moved away from the counter.
Peak rate was 50 n/min. (3 sigma above background.)
All runs with Ti were negative, and no excess
gamma-rays above a level of 60 per minute were found.
[Two separate accounts of Wolf's talk at the Santa Fe Workshop:]
To detect neutrons, two identical NE-213 detectors were used,
with pulse shape discrimination employed to identify neutrons.
The background was 0.8 neutrons per min., dropping to 0.4 n/min.
when analyzing for 2.5MeV neutrons. (Sorry, I didn't write why.)
Also used a surrounding plastic scintillator for cosmic ray
rejection. The neutron efficiency of their detectors was about
5%. Wolf showed one plot with about nine points on it spread
over 250 min. The count rate climbed from about 1 per min. up
to 3-4 per minute, then oscillated and went back to a background
level of about 1 per min. This was supposed to be an 8 sigma
signal. In the 20 minute data cuts, they were seeing about 40-60
counts.
Kevin Wolf of Texas A&M said they had altogether 5 groups working,
had 25 cells and more than 200 experiments using electrolysis and
absorption of D2 gas for both Pd rods of 1/2 to 6 mm diameter and
Ti rods of 1/2 to 3 mm diameter. The NE213 scintillator used for
neutron detection had an overall efficiency of 5%. Pulse Shape
Discrimination, PSD, was used to separate gammas from neutrons.
They have had negative results and positive results. They can
measure between 0.5 and 50 MeV. The background rate is 0.8 n per
min. and at times they observed 3 to 4 times this for the range
0.4 to 2.5 MeV which corresponds to a source of 50 n per min.
over a period of 1 to 2 hours. The graphs of n/min as a function
of time showed marked variation, sometimes appearing to correlate
with current changes, but not in a clearly reasonable way. A
calibration curve for 2 MeV neutrons was shown where the data
and the Monte Carlo did not quite fit. Moshe Gai seized on this
to say it was the same as he had observed initially and at that
time he thought he had evidence for cold fusion. However he found
that it was due to multiple reflections of gammas in his ring of
neutron counters. Kevin Wolf refused to believe this though I
tried to explain for Moshe, that in neighbouring counters if
there were neutrons the signals would be displaced in time, whereas
if they were gammas, the signals would coincide - and they found
coincidences in time.
Gamma production:
Null result (< 60 /min)
Tritium production:
Found in 7 of 10 cells
Cathodes: Pd 0.1x4 cm rod "from Bockris group" [???]
Current: Charged at 60 mA/cm**2 for two weeks, then 500 mA/cm**2
for 6 - 8 hrs.
Initially 60 - 80 dpm/ml, rising to >10**6 dpm/ml after a few hours.
Carefully neutralized their electrolyte.
Up to 5E6 dpm/ml.
Tritium assays crosschecked by LANL and GM Research Labs.
solution sample no. disintegrations/min/ml
----------------------------------------------------------------
1 2.0 x 10^6
2 4.8 x 10^6
3 3.6 x 10^6
4 2.2 x 10^6
5 3.6 x 10^4
6 2.4 x 10^4
7 6.3 x 10^4
Blank LiOD 210
Texas A&M Los Alamos
--------- ----------
D2O 180 dpm/ml 100 dpm/ml
D2O+LiOD 240 100
Cell A (blank) 1300 900
Cell B 2.1E6 2.0E6
Helium production:
Null result. ("assay of the electrodes showed no indications
of excess he3 or he4.")
Miscellaneous:
d loading in excess of 1 were determined by direct weighing of the
sample. no poisons were mentioned during the presentation.
Bockris claimed loadings in excess of 0.98 by weighing.
1.1.14. Landau, Case Western Reserve University, USA
8 - 30 % excess heat.
tritium content doubled.
bursts of neutrons
No recombination of D2 and O2 to within 3% error.
40% more excess heat than F&P reported with D2O.
No excess heat with H2O.
4 cells, including D2O/H2O comparison and a Pt cathode cell.
Excess heat of 0.144 W (6 W/cm**3 of Pd) @ 255 mA/cm**2.
No tritium.
Neutron production at 3-4 sigma level.
1.1.15. Thomassen, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, USA
null result - neutrons
1.1.16. Haun, Westinghouse Research and Development Center, USA
null result
1.1.17. Lewis, California Institute of Technology, USA
null result - heat, neutrons, He-4
7 different trials of the F&P experiment, various cathodes
(including one from Texas A&M purported to produce neutrons)
and electrolytes.
Loading (D/Pd): 0.78 - 0.8
Detection limits:
neutrons- 0.1/sec
gammas- 20keV-30MeV
4He- 1ppm
calorimetry- within 10%
Lewis measured between 3 and 8 V total for the seven
experiments they had tried, or a minimum of 0.8 V for
ohmic heating - Pons used 0.5 V for the effective voltage
delivered to the cell for ohmic heating.
1.1.18. Gai, Yale University, USA
null result - neutrons, gammas
Cathodes:
1) Pd plate - cold-worked (pounded with a sledge hammer to
create dislocations in the lattice structure), then heated
in D2 (300 degrees C, 120 psi) and anodized.
2) Pd cylinder - annealed in flowing argon at 1000 degrees C.
3) Pd cylinder - annealed in flowing argon at 1000 degrees C.
4) Pd cylinder - annealed in vacuum
5-8) Ti parallelepipeds, cold-worked.
9) TiFe Mn powder, "hydrided" at 120 psi D at 900 degrees C,
0.7 0.2 2
charged on 19 Dec 87 and recharged on 04 Apr 89. Contained in a
2x20 cm cylinder pressurized to 120 psi.
Electrolytes:
1) 0.1 M LiOD, 97.5% D2O
2) 0.1 M LiOD, 99.8% D2O
3) 1 M LiOD, 97.5% D2O
4) 1 M 6LiOD, 97.5% D2O
5-8) the solution of Jones et al. (100 g D2O plus 0.125 g
each of various salts except AuCN.)
9) 0.1 M LiOD, 99.3% D2O
Neutron/gamma Detection:
The Yale-Brookhaven setup consists of four electrolytic
cells partially surrounded by six neutron detectors and
two sodium iodide crystal detectors for gamma rays. This is
enclosed in ~15 cm of borated concrete and ~15 cm of borated
paraffin, and topped by two cosmic ray detectors so that
possible muon-catalyzed fusion resulting from cosmic rays
can be "vetoed".
A neutron coming from the experiment interacts with
the first neutron detector (#0), which sits directly below
the cells, and then scatters to one of the other five which
are arranged in a ring. They require coincident signals from
two detectors (#0 and one other) to give a neutron count.
They can get some energy information about the neutrons
with this setup, but the placement of the detectors requires a
compromise between efficiency of detection and precision of energy
information. Signals from gamma rays and neutrons can be
distinguished easily by the shapes of the pulses.
Nitrogen gas is cycled through the cells to remove hydrogen gas,
keeping it below the 4.8% required for an explosive mixture with
air. The nitrogen is wetted with D2O to replace that lost by
electrolysis.
In order to test the hypothesis that "ignition" by energetic
particles was necessary to start the fusion, Gai disassembled
the smoke alarm from his home and spot-welded its americium
source to electrode #1 for some of the experiments, thus
providing 5 MeV alpha particles.
The neutron detection employed "state-of-the-art" pulse-shape
detectors not yet commercially available. The threshold for
neutron detection was ~0.5 MeV. Efficiency of detection,
taking into account coincidence was ~1%.
The signal was filtered by software to remove gamma ray signals
in counting neutrons and to exclude neutron counts with energies
greater than 3 MeV.
Gai gave the three-standard-deviation upper limits on fusion
yields as < 2x10^-25 fusions/deuteron pair/sec for d+d
(based on neutron counts) and < 2x10^-22 fusions/pair/sec
for p+d (based on gamma ray counts). He says the first
compares favorably with the number given by Jones et al.,
10^-23.
1.1.19. Redey, Argonne National Lab, USA
null result - heat
Constant heat loss calorimeter accurate to 0.1 W.
Semisealed cell.
Loading (D/Pd): 0.8.
Current: 0.8 - 500 mA.
Rate of recombination of D2 and O2 found to be very low.
1.1.20. Kashy, NSCL, Michigan State University, USA
null result - heat
D/Pd loading = 0.6.
1.1.21. Csikai and Sztaricskai, Debrecen, Hungary
reported that they reproduced the phenomenon
on 31 March 1989.
1.1.22 Unknown, Texas A&M Univ., USA
From Jeff Farmer on the Well:
I have a friend who is a grad student in Chemistry here at
Texas A&M; he and others in his lab got the news yesterday
and proceeded to whip out some palladium and heavy H2O and
try the thing. Their heavy water boiled immediately,
verifying the energy output.
I've talked in more detail to my source in the Texas A&M
Chemistry Dept. where an attempt is being made right now to
verify this report. Everything here is tentative. A
current was run through heavy water using a palladium
electrode. The potential was begun at one volt and run up to
ten. At about 9.5 volts the current started "taking off".
Heat was generated, boiling the D2O. According to the
preliminary calculations, the heat out was about 2.5 times
the electrical energy in.
1.1.23 Eden, University of Washington, USA
Their apparatus consisted of a hollow palladium electrode sealed at
one end connected to an ultra-high vacuum mass spectrometer. Gold wire
was used as the anode. The electrodes were placed in D2O and run at
10V and 1 milliamp for 3.5 hours before the DT molecule was detected.
They let it run for 10 hours, and the DT signal continued.
As a control, they ran the same setup with H2O, and found no tritium
signal within detectable limits.
They returned to D2O, and the signal reappeared after waiting a while
(the exact waiting time was not specified).
The tritium signal was observed at ~100 times the background level.
No neutrons were detected, although the detector used was not very
sensitive.
[This report is believed to be erroneous. They may have been
seeing mass 5 triatomic hydrogen ions.]
1.1.24 Coey, Trinity College, Dublin, Eire
This demonstration consisted of two electrolysis cells wired
in parallel to 7 volt power supply. Each cell used gold/titanium
electrodes. One contained H2O, the other D2O.
After 40 minutes of electrolysis the temperature of the water
cell was 41 C and that of the heavywater was 45 C.
1.1.25 Scoessow, University of Florida, USA
Claimed to see tritium production from a F&P cell.
Cathode: Pd
Electrolyte: LiOD
After 48 hours of electrolysis, they find ~1E9 tritons.
After 100 hours, they find ~2E10 tritons.
A control run without current produced negligible tritium.
They subjected the Pd to a "special treatment" before
the experiment but are uncertain which "adaptation may
have contributed to their findings."
1.1.26 Kreysa, University of Berlin, FRG
null result - heat [?]
1.1.27 Unknown, Technical University of Gliwice, Poland
"positive results"
1.1.28 Unknown, The University of Wroclaw. Poland
"positive results"
1.1.29 Unknown, Institute of Plasma Physics and Laser Microfusion, Poland
null result
1.1.30 Unknown, University of Minnesota, USA
in progress?
1.1.31 Dash, Portland State University, Oregon, USA
Cathode: Pd
Electrolyte: undisclosed
Temperature increase in cell from 21 C to 27.5 C in one second.
5 micron crater in cathode
"100 times more energy out than in"
Claimed that they dropped the current when they saw the
temperature jump, then saw a heat output 4 times electrical
input until they shut it down.
"They used an undisclosed electrode treatment which shortened
the precharge time, and there are undisclosed aspects of the
electrolyte."
1.1.32 Seeliger, Technical University of Dresden, DDR
Cathode: Pd thick foils
20 +/- 5 neutrons per hour with NE213 detector over 20 hours.
1.1.33 Unknown, University of Arizona, Arizona, USA
University of Arizona has experiments that are giving off
excess heat and apparently confirm the F&P heat results.
1.1.34 Brooks, Ohio State University, USA
null result: heat, neutrons, gammas, helium
1.1.35 Cantrell, Miami University, USA
Cathodes: ZrPd alloy contaminated with Cu, Si, Zn, Fe,...
Ambiguous results (100% excess heat, 0 excess heat, 50% excess
heat) attributed to chemical reactions with glass in the cell.
1.1.36 Unknown, Florida State University, USA
null result - x-rays
1.1.37 Jorne, Univ. of Rochester, USA
null result - neutrons, heat, gamma
Cathode: Pd rod ("hollow, pitted like a golf ball")
Thought they might have seen tritium.
Claim to have most sensitive neutron detector in the world.
Neutron rate < 0.5/sec.
1.1.38 Dickens, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
null result - heat, neutrons
1.1.39 Sur[?], Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, USA
null result
[Not necessarily from the same group at LBL:]
Null result - neutrons.
F&P cell using pure 6LiOD as electrolyte.
Loadings (D/Pd): .7 - .8
1.1.40 Williams, Harwell Nuclear Laboratory, Oxfordshire, UK
Null result - heat, "radiation"
[This is the one Fleischmann helped set up.]
1.1.41 Krishnakumar, Tata Institute for Fundamental Research, Bombay, India
Cathode: Pd wire 1mm (0.8 cm**2 area) 99.9% pure
Electrolyte: 99% D2O 1.0M NaCl with H2O control (20 ml)
Two highly stabilized d.c. power supplies (Kepco Models
ATE15-6M and ATE75-0.7M), used in the constant-current mode,
were used to supply constant power to each cell. The
constant-power condition could be achieved with currents to
the two cells differing by only 4%. In addition to monitoring
the electrolyte temperature in the two cells, the ambient
temperature was also monitored with a mercury thermometer
immersed in a beaker of water.
RESULTS
The measurements of electrolyte temperature as a function of time
were made in four distinct stages. In the first stage low current
densities ( ca. 31.2 mA cm-2) were used for a period of 80 hours.
In order to keep the power input equal for the two cells, the
current through D2O was 25 mA whereas that through H2O was 24 mA.
The current readings were accurate to within 1%. The power input
to each cell was 0.06 W. The power input values in our experiments
have an error of less than 2%. The temperature variation obtained
in this stage of the experiment is shown in Fig.2. Both the D2O
and H2O temperature essentially follow the variation of the ambient
temperature over the 80 hour measurement period.
In the second stage of the measurements, the current density was
enhanced to ca. 62.5 mA cm-2. The D2O and H2O currents were 50 mA
and 52 mA, respectively, and the power input in the two cells was
0.170 W (D2O) and 0.172 W (H2O). The temperature variation from
90-117 hours is shown in Fig.3. The temperature of both electrolytes
is higher than the ambient temperature, with the D2O cell
temperature being consistently higher than the H2O temperature by
ca.2oC. The temperature variation in both cells appears to mimic
the ambient temperature fluctuations well.
In the next stage of the measurements, which lasted for nearly 30
hours, the current density used was ca. 125 mA cm-2. The D2O and H2O
currents were 100 mA and 110 mA, respectively, yielding corresponding
input powers of 0.43 W (D2O) and 0.42 W (H2O). The temperature
variation in the two cells is depicted in Fig.4. The electrolytes
in both cells reach an equilibrium temperature within a period of
about 2 hours. A somewhat higher temperature (an average of 2.5oC)
is seen to persist in the case of the D2O cell throughout the
equilibrium region shown in Fig.4.
The final stage of the experiment, lasting 50 hours, was carried out
with a current density of ca. 250 mA cm-2. The D2O and H2O currents
were 200 mA and 210 mA, respectively. In addition to the initial,
comparatively rapid temperature rise observed in both electrolytic
cells, the two curves display a slowly diverging behavior. A
temperature difference of 3oC between D2O and H2O at 155-165
hours is seen to become a temperature difference of 15oC at
190 hours. Such behavior tends to indicate a degree of conformity
with results of other, recent calorimetric experiments [1-3].
However, the observed behavior (Fig.5) in our experiments can be
explained without recourse to hypotheses of electrochemically-induced,
cold fusion. By allowing the volumes in the electrolytic cells to
drop by approximately 50% in the course of the time period between
ca. 160 hours and 190 hours, the effective voltage drop across the
electrodes changes; the corresponding difference in the input power
to the two cells is measured to be
{Input power(D2O)}/{Input power(H2O)} = 1.8 (5)
at 190 hours (where the temperature difference is maximum). When
the volumes in the two cells are restored to their original values
of 20 ml each by the addition of D2O and H2O, the temperature
initially falls sharply and then again reach an equilibrium at
197-200 hours. It is also of interest to note that during the
period over which the input power to the D2O cell was changing
(160-190 hours), the input power to the H2O cell was observed
to actually decrease by 4%. Despite this, the temperature in
this cell was measured to increase by 2oC.
It is intriguing that under conditions of highest current density
and highest input power, even the temperature of the H2O cell rises
by 2oC over a period of ca. 30 hours. This rise in temperature is
of the same magnitude as the observed difference in the D2O and H2O
temperatures at lower input powers and current densities (Fig.3,4).
To summarize, the results of simultaneous experiments on electrolysis
of D2O and H2O, conducted over an extended period of 200 hours,
provide some evidence that under conditions of constant input
power, the temperature in the cell containing D2O is observed to be
consistently higher (by ca. 2oC) than that in the H2O cell. We
are unable to pinpoint any source of systematic error to account
for such a temperature difference. On the other hand, our
measurements clearly fail to provide support for other experimental
findings [2,3] in which the D2O temperature rises in much more
dramatic fashion.
1.1.42 Hayden, University of British Columbia, BC, CAN
Null result - heat.
Dr. Hayden of the University of British Columbia, used a
completely closed system [at last], with a Pd catalyser
near the top of their cell giving a 100% efficiency in
the recombination of gases. The experiment was thermally
isolated by multiple layers of heat shields. The Pd cathodes
are 4 by 0.8 by 0.4 cm3 and weigh about 10 grams. Several
cells were used with loading factors of 0.8 to 0.84 by weighing.
Controls were done using platinum cathodes. The ratio of the
power produced of Pd to Pt cathodes was 1.000 +/- 0.003, i.e.
0.3% over the range of input powers from 4 to 18 Watts.
He emphasised the importance of the latent heat of vaporisation
which at 20 degrees C is only 2% but at 40, 60 and 80 degrees
is 6.5, 18 and 44 % resp. so that if the temperature rises
for some reason (e.g. electrolyte level falling and releasing
the Wigner energy), then an apparent excess heat would be
observed temporarily. It is important to know if the gases
escaping in other experiments are saturated with D2O vapour
and where does this heat go. He showed a graph of the variation
with time of the D/Pd ratio - it initially rises linearly then
flattens off at 0.8 after 10 hours. This would tend to show that
very long charging times are not necessary as had been suggested
by finders of positive results. The subsequent run was 12 days.
1.1.43 Albagli, MIT, MA, USA
Null result - heat, gamma, He-4.
Cathode: Pd rod 0.1x10 cm
Loading (D/Pd): 0.8.
Current density: 196 +/- 2 mA/cm**2
Did isothermal calorimetry.
1.1.44 Paquette, Chalk River/Whiteshell
Null result - heat.
Cathodes: Pd - 13 electrodes in the form of wire, sheet, rod
and tube, with masses between 1.4 and 41 grams. 11 of the
cathodes were annealed. Pd was from Johnson Matthey, 99.995% pure.
Electrolyte temperature varied between 16 and 50 C.
D/Pd ratio was 0.7 and no variation in this was found to a
depth of 20 microns after 25 days.
Energy: 5.0 +/- 0.1 watts in and out at 100 mA.
1.1.45 Fleming, University of Michigan, USA
Null result - x-rays.
Cathode: Pd foil
Current: 48 mA for 5 days
1.1.46 Defour, Bugey, France
Null result - neutrons.
They used an array of 98 NE-320 liquid scintillators
designed to be used in the detection of antineutrinos.
Their efficiency was 15-17%. Their reported neutron
production rate was 0.4 +/- 1.6 neutrons per hour.
1.1.47 Guruswamy, University of Utah, USA
Cathode: Pd rod 0.4x10 cm
Positive results w/ Pd cathodes, null results w/ other metals.
During one 24-hour period, one rod produced 18 watts of heat
from 9 watts electrical input.
At one point, a rod heated its electrolyte 25 degrees in
3 minutes and maintained the high heat level for 40 minutes
before producing a small explosion.
Heat produced in "spurts" - during one 90 min. spurt,
output energy was 54 W for 9 W electrical input.
Four very random bursts of heat between 10 and 60 watts.
1.1.48 Millikan, UCSB, USA
Cathode: 1.6 gm Pd wire
Electrolyte: D2O/LiOD
Current Density: 6 V, 0.6 A, 60 ma/cm**2
We have been running a P&F type cell since Sunday 5/28 using
a 1.6g Pd wire cathode, a Pt screen anode, and LiOD in D2O
electrolyte. At 6V and 0.6A, the current density was about
60 mA/cm2. After about 20 hours of elapsed time, the neutron
count in our 3He proportional counter rose to 1.4 times the
background rate of 400 per hour. By 50 hours into the run
we observed a count rate of 700 - 730 counts per hour. This
particular counter has a Cd sheet adjacent to the cell to
eliminate thermal neutrons. Then there is a 6 inch thickness
of polyethylene to moderate the higher energy neutrons before
they enter the counter tubes. Insertion of a second Cd sheet
between the polythene and the counter caused the high count rate
to return to near background. Removal of the Cd restored the
high count rate. We shut off the cell current Wednesday night
due to a planned power outage. On Thursday morning, our count
rate was back in the vicinity of 400/hr.
There is some evidence of "bursts" of neutron emission, but our
counter integration time hides these. These are preliminary
results which must be repeated. At present we are busy checking
on the background, calibrating with known sources, and a general
rebuild. These are low levels, but some 35 sigma above background.
An initial check for tritium using the scintillation counting of
the electrolyte showed none above our D2O sample. No effort has
been made to do calorimetry. We do plan to look for 3He and 4He
as soon as a special UHV cell is complete.
1.1.49 Scott, ORNL, USA
Null result - heat.
Claimed temperature excursions up to 70 degrees could be
accounted for by evaporation processes.
1.1.50 Crooks, MIT, USA
Null result - heat
Cathode: Pd rod
Isothermal calorimetry. No heat production to within 9%.
Helium production:
The palladium rod was analysed for helium and a number of
4 E11 atoms per cm3 found - this would correspond to a maximum power
output of 1.8 microWatts.
Crooks et al. of MIT said they had examined a small sample of
Pd and found no 4He giving an upper limit of < 0.1 E9 atoms per
cm3 of Pd.
[This is obviously contradictory. Help?]
1.1.51 Randolph, Savannah River, USA
Null result- heat.
"An argon purged D2O electrolysis cell is mounted inside a
dry calorimeter which measures heat output to +/- 0.2% at
10 Watts thermal. Constant flow argon sweep gas is dried
for evaporation water measurement and analysed by an on-line
quadrupole mass spectrometer to measure off-gas species and amounts.
Electrolysis power is measured at 10 sec intervals, integrated,
and compared with the sum of calorimeter heat, electrolytic heat
of formation, evaporation heat, and argon heat gain."
Power in = 1.944 E5 joules
Power out = 1.912 E5 joules.
The errors were about +/- 0.1 Watt.
1.1.52 Declais, Annecy/College de France, FR
Null result - neutrons.
Yves Declais of Annecy presented the results of the
College de France, Marseille, Grenoble, Annecy Collaboration
who used the Frejus Tunnel. They used the new liquid
scintillator NE320 loaded with 0.15% 6Li. They observe both
the proton recoils from the slowing of the neutron and also
the reaction products when the thermal neutron is captured
by the 6Li to give 3He + t in coincidence after a 30 ns delay.
PSD gives a very good separation of the neutrons from the
gammas. So they have 4 constraints and not only one with NE213
First experiments were done at the Bugey site where they have
developed their detectors over a number of years. One point
that is very important is to have a good Monte Carlo which
fully takes into account the shielding. Their detector was
calibrated in the Gran Sasso Tunnel when the background was
1 count per day. The efficiency was 2.7%. The background
obtained after off-line analysis was 2 per 5 days. Four
different cells with palladium cathodes were used. No neutrons
were seen above a background of 0.017 neutrons per hour.
1.1.53 Unknown, Arizona State University, USA
"ASU has at least 3 F&P experiments under way. One will count
neutrons with a sensitive detector in a shielded environment.
One will measure heat. I don't know about the 3rd."
have been done to date. It is certainly not comprehensive, although I
would like it to be. If you have data on experiments I haven't listed,
or corrections or additions to the ones I have, PLEASE send me mail.
This article covers the "Fleischmann-Pons"-type experiments. Future
articles will cover the Jones- and Frascatti-type experiments, and
other CNF-relevant experiments, such as muon bombardment of D-saturated
palladium and ion-beam implantation of D in Pd foils. There will also
be articles on materials technology, cathode poisoning, CNF theory, and
a bibliography. As corrections and additions are added, I will send out
patches to these articles, and I'll repost the articles in their entirety
when it seems warranted.
I would have liked to acknowledge all the people who posted this
information, but assembling this has been enough of a nightmare
without trying to drag attributions along. My thanks to all those
who have contributed by posting summaries of the meetings and tidbits
from local papers, and who have given up their free time to do
research on this. Maybe, in a future edition of this, I'll be
able to acknowledge all the individuals who have helped out here.
IF YOU HAVE HARD INFORMATION ON ANY CNF EXPERIMENT WHICH IS
NOT INCLUDED HERE, OR ADDITIONS OR CORRECTIONS, PLEASE LET ME KNOW.
--
Dave Mack
csu@alembic.acs.com (703)734-0877 (home)
uunet!inco!alembic!csu (703)883-3911 (work)
6611 Byrnes Dr.
McLean VA 22101
-------------------------------- cut here --------------------------------
1.0 EXPERIMENTS
Cold fusion related experiments are divided into four categories:
1. F&P
2. Jones
3. Scaramuzzi
4. Other
These distinctions are somewhat artificial, given the similarity between
the F&P experiments and the Jones experiments. To further clarify: the
F&P class of experiments use simple electrolytes, require long chargeup
times, and seem to require high current densities, while the Jones
experiments use more complicated electrolytes, require little chareup
time, and operate at low current densities. The Scaramuzzi class of
experiments do not use electrolysis, but rely on pressure-charging
of the lattice followed by temperature fluctuations to induce fusion.
1.1 Fleischmann-Pons Experiments
1.1.1 Fleischmann and Pons, University of Utah, USA
Electrolyte: 0.1M LiOD in 99.5% D2O, 0.5% H2O
Material: Pd [purity/contaminants unspecified.]
Excess Heat Production:
1x1x1 cm cube:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
125 WARNING: IGNITION?
0.2x8x8 cm sheet:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
0.8 0.153 ? (0)
1.2 .027 .0021
1.6 0.79 .0061
0.4x10 cm rod:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
8 0.153 0.122
64 1.751 1.39
512* 26.8 21.4
0.2x10 cm rod:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
8 0.036 0.115
64 0.493 1.57
512* 3.02 9.61
0.1x10 cm rod:
current density excess rate of heating excess specific rate of heating
(mA/cm**2) (watts/cm**3) (watts/cm**3)
8 0.0075 0.095
64 0.079 1.01
512* 0.654 8.33
* - 512 ma/cm**2 measurements performed on samples 1.25 cm long
and rescaled to 10 cm. [No details given.]
Gamma production:
Cathode: Pd 0.8x10 cm rod "charged to equilibrium".
Detector: NaI crystal scintillation detector and Nuclear Data
ND-6 High Energy Spectrum Analyzer over water bath.
Results: Gamma peak at 2.22 MeV
[These results are believed to be erroneous]
Neutron production:
Cathode: 0.4x10 cm Pd rod
Current density: 64 mA/cm**2
Detector: Harwell Neutron Dose Equivalent Rate Monitor,
Type 95/0945-5 [BF3-filled Bonner sphere.]
Results: 4E4 /sec
Tritium production:
Cathode: 0.1x10 cm Pd rod
Detector: Ready Gel liquid scintillator/Beckman LS 5000 TD counter
Electrolyte neutralized by addition of potassium hydrogen phthalate.
Results: 100 dpm/ml [This is approximately the value of background
tritium found in the heavy water at Texas A&M Univ.]
Helium production:
Walling and Simons of the University of Utah measured He-4
in the evolved gases from one of Pons' cells which had been
producing excess heat for a "long time" and found a He-4:D2
ratio of 10**-5. The D2 and He-4 peaks were clearly separated.
Control experiments were performed on "dud" cells and cells
which had just started to produce excess heat. No He-4 was
found in either case. The mass spec cells were baked to remove
He-4 impurities.
Miscellaneous:
At a talk at CERN, Fleischmann claimed that it had taken them
three months to achieve a loading factor (D/Pd) of 0.6.
Pons stated that they had performed a control experiment using
H2O and had found no excess heat production.
Walling claims that F&P don't bake their electrodes
because this can cause impurities to migrate to the
cathode surface, yielding dud cells.
Since publication, Pons has, at various times, claimed:
1) to be producing 8 times as much energy as they put in
2) sustained reactions continuously for 800 hours
3) they are now seeing 67 watts/cm3
4) Energy coming out of system is fairly constant, but in some
situations there are large bursts of energy.
5) The bursts are enormous and, if persistent, are capable of
literally boiling the cell out at a very low voltage.
6) One cell, running at 32 degrees [C. ?] for 5 1/2 million
seconds [about 2 months], suddenly burst up to 60 degrees and
remained at that temperature for several hours.
7) Bursts of neutrons and other radioactive particles have been
seen.
8) Some bursts have lasted long enough to enable scientists to
go into the machine to check instruments.
9) The heat output from the sustained bursts over a two-day
period have [sic] been between 1,000 and 5,000 percent more
than the input.
10) A burst of excess heat of 1 W lasting 2E5 sec. and producing
4.2 MJ. [These numbers don't quite make sense.]
1.1.2. Kuzmin, Moscow State University, USSR
Neutron production and "enough heat to boil water"
in his cell. They claim to have detected neutrons at 3 to 5
times background from both palladium and titanium electrodes
using currents of up to 300,000 amps. [At 3E5 amps, I'm not
surprised the water boiled.]
1.1.3. Chudakov, Byelorussian State University, USSR
"different electrodes and currents" with a "stable
effect in each case".
1.1.4. Mathews, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research, India
Titanium and platinum electrodes.
D2O containing 0.2 percent Ni and Pd chlorides.
Neutron flux 30% greater than background.
1.1.5. Santhanam, Tata Institute for Fundamental Research, India
"a 400% energy gain"
1.1.6. Unknown, Bhabha Atomic Research Center, India
"net energy output"
1.1.7. Unknown, Comenius University, Czechoslavakia
"sketchy report of success"
1.1.8. Unknown, Lajos Kossuth University, Hungary
"rough confirmations of neutron flux but no heat
measurements"
1.1.9. Unknown, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
In Brazil, researchers at the Institute of Physics of
the University of Sao Paulo working jointly with the
Institute of Nuclear and Energy Research there, said they had
also measured neutrons from an attempt to duplicate the
Pons-Fleischmann experiment. They said the levels of neutrons
obtained were twice as large as the background level.
1.1.10. Unknown, Institute of Space Research, Brazil
"neutron output but no heat measurement"
1.1.11. Huggins, Stanford University, USA
Cathodes: Pd disks 2mm x (10 - 20 mm; variously reported)
Electrolyte:
Results: 50% more heat from D2O than H2O control.
15% excess energy in 35 hour runs and 10 MJ/mole Pd
in longer runs.
Max. excess heat was 1.2 watts.
Miscellaneous:
Adding H2O to a running cell eliminated excess heat production.
Cathodes were completely submerged.
Used gyroscopic motion of entire apparatus, including water bath,
to ensure stirring of cell.
The Heavy water cells begin with exactly the same result
as the light water cells then, after 30 to 60 hours, the heat
production goes up from the endothermically-depressed value,
through the break even value that one would have if no gas was
being evolved, past this point into an excess (above electrical
input) value by about 12%. Later in his talk he says that the
excess heat has continued to climb with time and showed the
excess heat graph with a penciled-in point from data taken
the previous day with 22% excess heat shown.
A heat-producing cathode which is removed from the electrolyte,
exposed to "wet air", and then returned will no longer show
excess heat.
1.1.12. Appleby, Texas A&M University, USA
Cathodes: Pd - .5x10 mm wire, 1x10 mm wire, 2 mm sphere
Calorimeter: Tronac Model 350 microcalorimeter (1 uW - 8 W +/- 3 uW)
Electrolytes:
(7.5 - 8.0 ml) 0.1M LiOD, 0.1M LiOH, 0.1M NaOD, 1.0M LiOD
Controls: H2O , Pt cathodes
Heat production:
Of 20 cells, 1/3 show excess heat, up to 30 mW (10% heat excess).
Up to 20 W/cm**3 of Pd for 10 hrs at 300, 600, 1000 mA/cm**2.
30 - 40 mW for several days at a time with LiOD.
5 - 8 mW with NaOD.
[It is alleged that experiments were done with depleted lithium
(>99% Li-7), yielding slightly less excess heat than with normal
lithium (~8% Li-6.)]
They claimed that there was no recombination of D2 and O2
above the 1% level.
Cathode Anode Electrolyte Current Density Excess Heat Rate
mA/cm**2 W/cm**3 of Pd
------- ----- ----------- --------------- ----------------
Pd 300 16.3
0.5mm dia. Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 19.3
10mm long 1000 18.5
Pd
same Pt 0.1M LiOH 600 0
Pt
same Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 0
Pd
1.0mm dia. Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 4-7
10mm long
Pd
2.0mm dia. Pt 0.1M LiOD 600 6-12
sphere
------------------------------------------------------------------
Neutron production:
None of the heat-producing cells show neutron emission.
Helium production:
He-3: < 3.0E9 / cm**3
He-4: < 0.3E9 / cm**3
"The lower bounds were< 0.2-1.2 * 10**9 atoms in samples with
masses between 8.79 and 14.49 mg."
1.1.13. Wolf, Texas A&M University, USA
Cathodes: Pd rods of 1/2 to 6 mm diameter and Ti rods of 1/2 to 3 mm
diameter.
2 live cells out of 20, 1 reproducibly.
Neutron production:
Neutron flux changes in a non-monotonic way with current and
falls off as 1/r**2 when the cell is moved away from the counter.
Peak rate was 50 n/min. (3 sigma above background.)
All runs with Ti were negative, and no excess
gamma-rays above a level of 60 per minute were found.
[Two separate accounts of Wolf's talk at the Santa Fe Workshop:]
To detect neutrons, two identical NE-213 detectors were used,
with pulse shape discrimination employed to identify neutrons.
The background was 0.8 neutrons per min., dropping to 0.4 n/min.
when analyzing for 2.5MeV neutrons. (Sorry, I didn't write why.)
Also used a surrounding plastic scintillator for cosmic ray
rejection. The neutron efficiency of their detectors was about
5%. Wolf showed one plot with about nine points on it spread
over 250 min. The count rate climbed from about 1 per min. up
to 3-4 per minute, then oscillated and went back to a background
level of about 1 per min. This was supposed to be an 8 sigma
signal. In the 20 minute data cuts, they were seeing about 40-60
counts.
Kevin Wolf of Texas A&M said they had altogether 5 groups working,
had 25 cells and more than 200 experiments using electrolysis and
absorption of D2 gas for both Pd rods of 1/2 to 6 mm diameter and
Ti rods of 1/2 to 3 mm diameter. The NE213 scintillator used for
neutron detection had an overall efficiency of 5%. Pulse Shape
Discrimination, PSD, was used to separate gammas from neutrons.
They have had negative results and positive results. They can
measure between 0.5 and 50 MeV. The background rate is 0.8 n per
min. and at times they observed 3 to 4 times this for the range
0.4 to 2.5 MeV which corresponds to a source of 50 n per min.
over a period of 1 to 2 hours. The graphs of n/min as a function
of time showed marked variation, sometimes appearing to correlate
with current changes, but not in a clearly reasonable way. A
calibration curve for 2 MeV neutrons was shown where the data
and the Monte Carlo did not quite fit. Moshe Gai seized on this
to say it was the same as he had observed initially and at that
time he thought he had evidence for cold fusion. However he found
that it was due to multiple reflections of gammas in his ring of
neutron counters. Kevin Wolf refused to believe this though I
tried to explain for Moshe, that in neighbouring counters if
there were neutrons the signals would be displaced in time, whereas
if they were gammas, the signals would coincide - and they found
coincidences in time.
Gamma production:
Null result (< 60 /min)
Tritium production:
Found in 7 of 10 cells
Cathodes: Pd 0.1x4 cm rod "from Bockris group" [???]
Current: Charged at 60 mA/cm**2 for two weeks, then 500 mA/cm**2
for 6 - 8 hrs.
Initially 60 - 80 dpm/ml, rising to >10**6 dpm/ml after a few hours.
Carefully neutralized their electrolyte.
Up to 5E6 dpm/ml.
Tritium assays crosschecked by LANL and GM Research Labs.
solution sample no. disintegrations/min/ml
----------------------------------------------------------------
1 2.0 x 10^6
2 4.8 x 10^6
3 3.6 x 10^6
4 2.2 x 10^6
5 3.6 x 10^4
6 2.4 x 10^4
7 6.3 x 10^4
Blank LiOD 210
Texas A&M Los Alamos
--------- ----------
D2O 180 dpm/ml 100 dpm/ml
D2O+LiOD 240 100
Cell A (blank) 1300 900
Cell B 2.1E6 2.0E6
Helium production:
Null result. ("assay of the electrodes showed no indications
of excess he3 or he4.")
Miscellaneous:
d loading in excess of 1 were determined by direct weighing of the
sample. no poisons were mentioned during the presentation.
Bockris claimed loadings in excess of 0.98 by weighing.
1.1.14. Landau, Case Western Reserve University, USA
8 - 30 % excess heat.
tritium content doubled.
bursts of neutrons
No recombination of D2 and O2 to within 3% error.
40% more excess heat than F&P reported with D2O.
No excess heat with H2O.
4 cells, including D2O/H2O comparison and a Pt cathode cell.
Excess heat of 0.144 W (6 W/cm**3 of Pd) @ 255 mA/cm**2.
No tritium.
Neutron production at 3-4 sigma level.
1.1.15. Thomassen, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, USA
null result - neutrons
1.1.16. Haun, Westinghouse Research and Development Center, USA
null result
1.1.17. Lewis, California Institute of Technology, USA
null result - heat, neutrons, He-4
7 different trials of the F&P experiment, various cathodes
(including one from Texas A&M purported to produce neutrons)
and electrolytes.
Loading (D/Pd): 0.78 - 0.8
Detection limits:
neutrons- 0.1/sec
gammas- 20keV-30MeV
4He- 1ppm
calorimetry- within 10%
Lewis measured between 3 and 8 V total for the seven
experiments they had tried, or a minimum of 0.8 V for
ohmic heating - Pons used 0.5 V for the effective voltage
delivered to the cell for ohmic heating.
1.1.18. Gai, Yale University, USA
null result - neutrons, gammas
Cathodes:
1) Pd plate - cold-worked (pounded with a sledge hammer to
create dislocations in the lattice structure), then heated
in D2 (300 degrees C, 120 psi) and anodized.
2) Pd cylinder - annealed in flowing argon at 1000 degrees C.
3) Pd cylinder - annealed in flowing argon at 1000 degrees C.
4) Pd cylinder - annealed in vacuum
5-8) Ti parallelepipeds, cold-worked.
9) TiFe Mn powder, "hydrided" at 120 psi D at 900 degrees C,
0.7 0.2 2
charged on 19 Dec 87 and recharged on 04 Apr 89. Contained in a
2x20 cm cylinder pressurized to 120 psi.
Electrolytes:
1) 0.1 M LiOD, 97.5% D2O
2) 0.1 M LiOD, 99.8% D2O
3) 1 M LiOD, 97.5% D2O
4) 1 M 6LiOD, 97.5% D2O
5-8) the solution of Jones et al. (100 g D2O plus 0.125 g
each of various salts except AuCN.)
9) 0.1 M LiOD, 99.3% D2O
Neutron/gamma Detection:
The Yale-Brookhaven setup consists of four electrolytic
cells partially surrounded by six neutron detectors and
two sodium iodide crystal detectors for gamma rays. This is
enclosed in ~15 cm of borated concrete and ~15 cm of borated
paraffin, and topped by two cosmic ray detectors so that
possible muon-catalyzed fusion resulting from cosmic rays
can be "vetoed".
A neutron coming from the experiment interacts with
the first neutron detector (#0), which sits directly below
the cells, and then scatters to one of the other five which
are arranged in a ring. They require coincident signals from
two detectors (#0 and one other) to give a neutron count.
They can get some energy information about the neutrons
with this setup, but the placement of the detectors requires a
compromise between efficiency of detection and precision of energy
information. Signals from gamma rays and neutrons can be
distinguished easily by the shapes of the pulses.
Nitrogen gas is cycled through the cells to remove hydrogen gas,
keeping it below the 4.8% required for an explosive mixture with
air. The nitrogen is wetted with D2O to replace that lost by
electrolysis.
In order to test the hypothesis that "ignition" by energetic
particles was necessary to start the fusion, Gai disassembled
the smoke alarm from his home and spot-welded its americium
source to electrode #1 for some of the experiments, thus
providing 5 MeV alpha particles.
The neutron detection employed "state-of-the-art" pulse-shape
detectors not yet commercially available. The threshold for
neutron detection was ~0.5 MeV. Efficiency of detection,
taking into account coincidence was ~1%.
The signal was filtered by software to remove gamma ray signals
in counting neutrons and to exclude neutron counts with energies
greater than 3 MeV.
Gai gave the three-standard-deviation upper limits on fusion
yields as < 2x10^-25 fusions/deuteron pair/sec for d+d
(based on neutron counts) and < 2x10^-22 fusions/pair/sec
for p+d (based on gamma ray counts). He says the first
compares favorably with the number given by Jones et al.,
10^-23.
1.1.19. Redey, Argonne National Lab, USA
null result - heat
Constant heat loss calorimeter accurate to 0.1 W.
Semisealed cell.
Loading (D/Pd): 0.8.
Current: 0.8 - 500 mA.
Rate of recombination of D2 and O2 found to be very low.
1.1.20. Kashy, NSCL, Michigan State University, USA
null result - heat
D/Pd loading = 0.6.
1.1.21. Csikai and Sztaricskai, Debrecen, Hungary
reported that they reproduced the phenomenon
on 31 March 1989.
1.1.22 Unknown, Texas A&M Univ., USA
From Jeff Farmer on the Well:
I have a friend who is a grad student in Chemistry here at
Texas A&M; he and others in his lab got the news yesterday
and proceeded to whip out some palladium and heavy H2O and
try the thing. Their heavy water boiled immediately,
verifying the energy output.
I've talked in more detail to my source in the Texas A&M
Chemistry Dept. where an attempt is being made right now to
verify this report. Everything here is tentative. A
current was run through heavy water using a palladium
electrode. The potential was begun at one volt and run up to
ten. At about 9.5 volts the current started "taking off".
Heat was generated, boiling the D2O. According to the
preliminary calculations, the heat out was about 2.5 times
the electrical energy in.
1.1.23 Eden, University of Washington, USA
Their apparatus consisted of a hollow palladium electrode sealed at
one end connected to an ultra-high vacuum mass spectrometer. Gold wire
was used as the anode. The electrodes were placed in D2O and run at
10V and 1 milliamp for 3.5 hours before the DT molecule was detected.
They let it run for 10 hours, and the DT signal continued.
As a control, they ran the same setup with H2O, and found no tritium
signal within detectable limits.
They returned to D2O, and the signal reappeared after waiting a while
(the exact waiting time was not specified).
The tritium signal was observed at ~100 times the background level.
No neutrons were detected, although the detector used was not very
sensitive.
[This report is believed to be erroneous. They may have been
seeing mass 5 triatomic hydrogen ions.]
1.1.24 Coey, Trinity College, Dublin, Eire
This demonstration consisted of two electrolysis cells wired
in parallel to 7 volt power supply. Each cell used gold/titanium
electrodes. One contained H2O, the other D2O.
After 40 minutes of electrolysis the temperature of the water
cell was 41 C and that of the heavywater was 45 C.
1.1.25 Scoessow, University of Florida, USA
Claimed to see tritium production from a F&P cell.
Cathode: Pd
Electrolyte: LiOD
After 48 hours of electrolysis, they find ~1E9 tritons.
After 100 hours, they find ~2E10 tritons.
A control run without current produced negligible tritium.
They subjected the Pd to a "special treatment" before
the experiment but are uncertain which "adaptation may
have contributed to their findings."
1.1.26 Kreysa, University of Berlin, FRG
null result - heat [?]
1.1.27 Unknown, Technical University of Gliwice, Poland
"positive results"
1.1.28 Unknown, The University of Wroclaw. Poland
"positive results"
1.1.29 Unknown, Institute of Plasma Physics and Laser Microfusion, Poland
null result
1.1.30 Unknown, University of Minnesota, USA
in progress?
1.1.31 Dash, Portland State University, Oregon, USA
Cathode: Pd
Electrolyte: undisclosed
Temperature increase in cell from 21 C to 27.5 C in one second.
5 micron crater in cathode
"100 times more energy out than in"
Claimed that they dropped the current when they saw the
temperature jump, then saw a heat output 4 times electrical
input until they shut it down.
"They used an undisclosed electrode treatment which shortened
the precharge time, and there are undisclosed aspects of the
electrolyte."
1.1.32 Seeliger, Technical University of Dresden, DDR
Cathode: Pd thick foils
20 +/- 5 neutrons per hour with NE213 detector over 20 hours.
1.1.33 Unknown, University of Arizona, Arizona, USA
University of Arizona has experiments that are giving off
excess heat and apparently confirm the F&P heat results.
1.1.34 Brooks, Ohio State University, USA
null result: heat, neutrons, gammas, helium
1.1.35 Cantrell, Miami University, USA
Cathodes: ZrPd alloy contaminated with Cu, Si, Zn, Fe,...
Ambiguous results (100% excess heat, 0 excess heat, 50% excess
heat) attributed to chemical reactions with glass in the cell.
1.1.36 Unknown, Florida State University, USA
null result - x-rays
1.1.37 Jorne, Univ. of Rochester, USA
null result - neutrons, heat, gamma
Cathode: Pd rod ("hollow, pitted like a golf ball")
Thought they might have seen tritium.
Claim to have most sensitive neutron detector in the world.
Neutron rate < 0.5/sec.
1.1.38 Dickens, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA
null result - heat, neutrons
1.1.39 Sur[?], Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, USA
null result
[Not necessarily from the same group at LBL:]
Null result - neutrons.
F&P cell using pure 6LiOD as electrolyte.
Loadings (D/Pd): .7 - .8
1.1.40 Williams, Harwell Nuclear Laboratory, Oxfordshire, UK
Null result - heat, "radiation"
[This is the one Fleischmann helped set up.]
1.1.41 Krishnakumar, Tata Institute for Fundamental Research, Bombay, India
Cathode: Pd wire 1mm (0.8 cm**2 area) 99.9% pure
Electrolyte: 99% D2O 1.0M NaCl with H2O control (20 ml)
Two highly stabilized d.c. power supplies (Kepco Models
ATE15-6M and ATE75-0.7M), used in the constant-current mode,
were used to supply constant power to each cell. The
constant-power condition could be achieved with currents to
the two cells differing by only 4%. In addition to monitoring
the electrolyte temperature in the two cells, the ambient
temperature was also monitored with a mercury thermometer
immersed in a beaker of water.
RESULTS
The measurements of electrolyte temperature as a function of time
were made in four distinct stages. In the first stage low current
densities ( ca. 31.2 mA cm-2) were used for a period of 80 hours.
In order to keep the power input equal for the two cells, the
current through D2O was 25 mA whereas that through H2O was 24 mA.
The current readings were accurate to within 1%. The power input
to each cell was 0.06 W. The power input values in our experiments
have an error of less than 2%. The temperature variation obtained
in this stage of the experiment is shown in Fig.2. Both the D2O
and H2O temperature essentially follow the variation of the ambient
temperature over the 80 hour measurement period.
In the second stage of the measurements, the current density was
enhanced to ca. 62.5 mA cm-2. The D2O and H2O currents were 50 mA
and 52 mA, respectively, and the power input in the two cells was
0.170 W (D2O) and 0.172 W (H2O). The temperature variation from
90-117 hours is shown in Fig.3. The temperature of both electrolytes
is higher than the ambient temperature, with the D2O cell
temperature being consistently higher than the H2O temperature by
ca.2oC. The temperature variation in both cells appears to mimic
the ambient temperature fluctuations well.
In the next stage of the measurements, which lasted for nearly 30
hours, the current density used was ca. 125 mA cm-2. The D2O and H2O
currents were 100 mA and 110 mA, respectively, yielding corresponding
input powers of 0.43 W (D2O) and 0.42 W (H2O). The temperature
variation in the two cells is depicted in Fig.4. The electrolytes
in both cells reach an equilibrium temperature within a period of
about 2 hours. A somewhat higher temperature (an average of 2.5oC)
is seen to persist in the case of the D2O cell throughout the
equilibrium region shown in Fig.4.
The final stage of the experiment, lasting 50 hours, was carried out
with a current density of ca. 250 mA cm-2. The D2O and H2O currents
were 200 mA and 210 mA, respectively. In addition to the initial,
comparatively rapid temperature rise observed in both electrolytic
cells, the two curves display a slowly diverging behavior. A
temperature difference of 3oC between D2O and H2O at 155-165
hours is seen to become a temperature difference of 15oC at
190 hours. Such behavior tends to indicate a degree of conformity
with results of other, recent calorimetric experiments [1-3].
However, the observed behavior (Fig.5) in our experiments can be
explained without recourse to hypotheses of electrochemically-induced,
cold fusion. By allowing the volumes in the electrolytic cells to
drop by approximately 50% in the course of the time period between
ca. 160 hours and 190 hours, the effective voltage drop across the
electrodes changes; the corresponding difference in the input power
to the two cells is measured to be
{Input power(D2O)}/{Input power(H2O)} = 1.8 (5)
at 190 hours (where the temperature difference is maximum). When
the volumes in the two cells are restored to their original values
of 20 ml each by the addition of D2O and H2O, the temperature
initially falls sharply and then again reach an equilibrium at
197-200 hours. It is also of interest to note that during the
period over which the input power to the D2O cell was changing
(160-190 hours), the input power to the H2O cell was observed
to actually decrease by 4%. Despite this, the temperature in
this cell was measured to increase by 2oC.
It is intriguing that under conditions of highest current density
and highest input power, even the temperature of the H2O cell rises
by 2oC over a period of ca. 30 hours. This rise in temperature is
of the same magnitude as the observed difference in the D2O and H2O
temperatures at lower input powers and current densities (Fig.3,4).
To summarize, the results of simultaneous experiments on electrolysis
of D2O and H2O, conducted over an extended period of 200 hours,
provide some evidence that under conditions of constant input
power, the temperature in the cell containing D2O is observed to be
consistently higher (by ca. 2oC) than that in the H2O cell. We
are unable to pinpoint any source of systematic error to account
for such a temperature difference. On the other hand, our
measurements clearly fail to provide support for other experimental
findings [2,3] in which the D2O temperature rises in much more
dramatic fashion.
1.1.42 Hayden, University of British Columbia, BC, CAN
Null result - heat.
Dr. Hayden of the University of British Columbia, used a
completely closed system [at last], with a Pd catalyser
near the top of their cell giving a 100% efficiency in
the recombination of gases. The experiment was thermally
isolated by multiple layers of heat shields. The Pd cathodes
are 4 by 0.8 by 0.4 cm3 and weigh about 10 grams. Several
cells were used with loading factors of 0.8 to 0.84 by weighing.
Controls were done using platinum cathodes. The ratio of the
power produced of Pd to Pt cathodes was 1.000 +/- 0.003, i.e.
0.3% over the range of input powers from 4 to 18 Watts.
He emphasised the importance of the latent heat of vaporisation
which at 20 degrees C is only 2% but at 40, 60 and 80 degrees
is 6.5, 18 and 44 % resp. so that if the temperature rises
for some reason (e.g. electrolyte level falling and releasing
the Wigner energy), then an apparent excess heat would be
observed temporarily. It is important to know if the gases
escaping in other experiments are saturated with D2O vapour
and where does this heat go. He showed a graph of the variation
with time of the D/Pd ratio - it initially rises linearly then
flattens off at 0.8 after 10 hours. This would tend to show that
very long charging times are not necessary as had been suggested
by finders of positive results. The subsequent run was 12 days.
1.1.43 Albagli, MIT, MA, USA
Null result - heat, gamma, He-4.
Cathode: Pd rod 0.1x10 cm
Loading (D/Pd): 0.8.
Current density: 196 +/- 2 mA/cm**2
Did isothermal calorimetry.
1.1.44 Paquette, Chalk River/Whiteshell
Null result - heat.
Cathodes: Pd - 13 electrodes in the form of wire, sheet, rod
and tube, with masses between 1.4 and 41 grams. 11 of the
cathodes were annealed. Pd was from Johnson Matthey, 99.995% pure.
Electrolyte temperature varied between 16 and 50 C.
D/Pd ratio was 0.7 and no variation in this was found to a
depth of 20 microns after 25 days.
Energy: 5.0 +/- 0.1 watts in and out at 100 mA.
1.1.45 Fleming, University of Michigan, USA
Null result - x-rays.
Cathode: Pd foil
Current: 48 mA for 5 days
1.1.46 Defour, Bugey, France
Null result - neutrons.
They used an array of 98 NE-320 liquid scintillators
designed to be used in the detection of antineutrinos.
Their efficiency was 15-17%. Their reported neutron
production rate was 0.4 +/- 1.6 neutrons per hour.
1.1.47 Guruswamy, University of Utah, USA
Cathode: Pd rod 0.4x10 cm
Positive results w/ Pd cathodes, null results w/ other metals.
During one 24-hour period, one rod produced 18 watts of heat
from 9 watts electrical input.
At one point, a rod heated its electrolyte 25 degrees in
3 minutes and maintained the high heat level for 40 minutes
before producing a small explosion.
Heat produced in "spurts" - during one 90 min. spurt,
output energy was 54 W for 9 W electrical input.
Four very random bursts of heat between 10 and 60 watts.
1.1.48 Millikan, UCSB, USA
Cathode: 1.6 gm Pd wire
Electrolyte: D2O/LiOD
Current Density: 6 V, 0.6 A, 60 ma/cm**2
We have been running a P&F type cell since Sunday 5/28 using
a 1.6g Pd wire cathode, a Pt screen anode, and LiOD in D2O
electrolyte. At 6V and 0.6A, the current density was about
60 mA/cm2. After about 20 hours of elapsed time, the neutron
count in our 3He proportional counter rose to 1.4 times the
background rate of 400 per hour. By 50 hours into the run
we observed a count rate of 700 - 730 counts per hour. This
particular counter has a Cd sheet adjacent to the cell to
eliminate thermal neutrons. Then there is a 6 inch thickness
of polyethylene to moderate the higher energy neutrons before
they enter the counter tubes. Insertion of a second Cd sheet
between the polythene and the counter caused the high count rate
to return to near background. Removal of the Cd restored the
high count rate. We shut off the cell current Wednesday night
due to a planned power outage. On Thursday morning, our count
rate was back in the vicinity of 400/hr.
There is some evidence of "bursts" of neutron emission, but our
counter integration time hides these. These are preliminary
results which must be repeated. At present we are busy checking
on the background, calibrating with known sources, and a general
rebuild. These are low levels, but some 35 sigma above background.
An initial check for tritium using the scintillation counting of
the electrolyte showed none above our D2O sample. No effort has
been made to do calorimetry. We do plan to look for 3He and 4He
as soon as a special UHV cell is complete.
1.1.49 Scott, ORNL, USA
Null result - heat.
Claimed temperature excursions up to 70 degrees could be
accounted for by evaporation processes.
1.1.50 Crooks, MIT, USA
Null result - heat
Cathode: Pd rod
Isothermal calorimetry. No heat production to within 9%.
Helium production:
The palladium rod was analysed for helium and a number of
4 E11 atoms per cm3 found - this would correspond to a maximum power
output of 1.8 microWatts.
Crooks et al. of MIT said they had examined a small sample of
Pd and found no 4He giving an upper limit of < 0.1 E9 atoms per
cm3 of Pd.
[This is obviously contradictory. Help?]
1.1.51 Randolph, Savannah River, USA
Null result- heat.
"An argon purged D2O electrolysis cell is mounted inside a
dry calorimeter which measures heat output to +/- 0.2% at
10 Watts thermal. Constant flow argon sweep gas is dried
for evaporation water measurement and analysed by an on-line
quadrupole mass spectrometer to measure off-gas species and amounts.
Electrolysis power is measured at 10 sec intervals, integrated,
and compared with the sum of calorimeter heat, electrolytic heat
of formation, evaporation heat, and argon heat gain."
Power in = 1.944 E5 joules
Power out = 1.912 E5 joules.
The errors were about +/- 0.1 Watt.
1.1.52 Declais, Annecy/College de France, FR
Null result - neutrons.
Yves Declais of Annecy presented the results of the
College de France, Marseille, Grenoble, Annecy Collaboration
who used the Frejus Tunnel. They used the new liquid
scintillator NE320 loaded with 0.15% 6Li. They observe both
the proton recoils from the slowing of the neutron and also
the reaction products when the thermal neutron is captured
by the 6Li to give 3He + t in coincidence after a 30 ns delay.
PSD gives a very good separation of the neutrons from the
gammas. So they have 4 constraints and not only one with NE213
First experiments were done at the Bugey site where they have
developed their detectors over a number of years. One point
that is very important is to have a good Monte Carlo which
fully takes into account the shielding. Their detector was
calibrated in the Gran Sasso Tunnel when the background was
1 count per day. The efficiency was 2.7%. The background
obtained after off-line analysis was 2 per 5 days. Four
different cells with palladium cathodes were used. No neutrons
were seen above a background of 0.017 neutrons per hour.
1.1.53 Unknown, Arizona State University, USA
"ASU has at least 3 F&P experiments under way. One will count
neutrons with a sensitive detector in a shielded environment.
One will measure heat. I don't know about the 3rd."
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