Teaching Tips

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#deck title Teaching Tips HyperDeck

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#card WELCOME

   Welcome to Teaching Tips\!  This is a hypertext deck constructed at the

Instructional Development Services office of the University of California,

Irvine.  

   This deck has been copied with permission from the original entitled "A

Berkeley Compendium of Suggestions for Teaching Excellence."  This compendium

was originally developed by Robert C. Wilson, Director of TIES, University of

California, Berkeley, August 1983.

   We hope you find it useful, and invite you to contribute additional tips by

writing to:

#cl Instructional Development Services

#cl HTC 902--University of California

#cl Irvine, CA   92717

   For a short lesson in navigation press !help!here!.  To move to the Table of

Contents click your left mouse button !TOC!here! or on TofC in the menu line.

#end

#card ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

   The suggestions included in this compendium, with few

exceptions, are the contributions of more than 150 members of the

faculty of the University of California, Berkeley.  These faculty

members, who included over one-third of the past recipients of the

Distinguished Teaching Award, freely opened their classrooms to

evaluation by the project staff and gave generously of their time,

their experience, and their ideas for teaching with excellence. It

is to them that our greatest debt of thanks is owed.

   We would also like to thank the Academic Senate Committee on

Teaching,  whose many members over the past two decades have worked

to promote excellence in teaching through their annual program of

Distinguished Teaching Awards.  The existence of an already-

identified pool of excellent teachers in a wide variety of

disciplines played an important role in the decision to develop the

compendium.  On a campus with more than 1500 faculty members, our

research would have been difficult indeed if it had not been for

the Committee's work in recognizing these talented and  dedicated

teachers.

   For their moral and financial support, special thanks

to Watson M. Laetsch, Vice Chancellor for Undergraduate Affairs,

and to Professor Carol D'Onofrio, past chairperson of the Council

on Educational Development and Faculty Assistant to the Vice

Chancellor.  

   We wish to also acknowledge and thank the Systemwide

Administration of the University of California for the grant which

we received in support of the development of the compendium during

the final two years of the Teaching Evaluation and Consultation

project.  Our sincerest gratitude to David Douglas, who with

patience and good humor nurtured the suggestions through the many

UNIX revisions which finally culminated in this compendium.  Our

thanks to Nina Silber who provided skillful assistance in the final

copy-editing stages.  Kate Caldwell and Kay Iwata also contributed

to the production of the final version.  Over the years, many other

TIES staff members provided valuable assistance to the overall

project:  Daniel Finnegan, Linda Moulton, and Dale Harrington--

working seriatim--developed many useful computer programs for the

evaluation component of the project.  Our thanks also to Terry

Richards and Marjorie Borland who provided many support services

during the course of the project.

   Although they were not directly involved in the project, we would

also like to acknowledge our debt to Professor Milton Hildebrand (UCD)

and Professor Evelyn R. Dienst (formerly UCSF and currently at the

California School of Professional Psychology) for their earlier research

on evaluating teaching, conducted with Robert C. Wilson.  The evaluation

form included in this compendium is based on that research.  Our thanks

also to Professor Keith Jacoby (formerly at UCSF) whose initial

model for consulting with faculty about teaching improvement became

the impetus for the overall project.  Information on the

Hildebrand, Wilson, Dienst and the Jacoby studies can be found in

the following publications: 

Hildebrand, M., Wilson, R.C., and Dienst, E.R.  Evaluating University

   Teaching.  University of California, Berkeley:  Center for Research and

   Development in Higher Education, 1971.

Jacoby, K.E.  Behavioral prescriptions for faculty based on student 

   evaluations of teaching.  American Journal of Pharmaceutical

   Education,    (40) 1976, 8-13.

#end

#section

#card !How to Use!HOW TO USE THE COMPENDIUM!

Presented as a series of suggestions for improving teaching, this

compendium describes more than 200 teaching techniques that faculty

members have found to be effective in their courses at the

University of California, Berkeley. Taken together, these

suggestions cover the major aspects of college and university

teaching from planning and preparing courses to presenting material

and motivating students to giving and getting feedback on learning.

The compendium is designed to be a reference tool to help you

improve certain aspects of your own teaching; it is not a narrative

discourse on teaching meant to be read in a linear fashion. 

Therefore, it is recommended that you begin by reading the Table of

Contents and skimming the Index in order to locate those sections

or particular suggestions of greatest interest to you.

After you have become generally familiar with the contents of the

compendium, five steps are recommended for its most effective use

as a reference tool for improving teaching.

First,         fill out the 23 item self evaluation form in       

               Appendix B to help identify those aspects of       

               teaching which you may wish to improve.

Second,        review data from prior student evaluations of your 

               teaching to identify additional areas for          

               improvement.

Third,         scan the Table of Contents to locate those sections 

               of greatest interest to you and read the suggestions 

               within each of those sections, noting whether the  

               particular suggestion could be adapted to your     

               class.

Fourth,        use the Index to locate additional suggestions of  

               interest.  Many of the suggestions affect more than 

               one aspect of teaching; these are cross-referenced 

               in the Index.  In addition, suggestions relating to 

               very specific teaching techniques (e.g., simulations 

               or guest lecturers) can be readily found in the     

               Index.

Fifth,         once you have found suggestions that you want to try 

               in your own teaching, be sure to make a note of them 

               in or alongside your lecture notes so that you do  

               not forget to employ the suggestions at appropriate 

               points in your class.

#end

#card !organization!Organization of the Suggestions!

There are 23 sets of suggestions:  each set corresponds with an

aspect of teaching commonly included on student end-of-course

evaluation forms. For example, the suggestions in Section 5 relate

to the student evaluation item, "explains clearly."  If you want to

improve the clarity of your explanations, the suggestions presented

in this section would be of particular interest.  The 23 sections

are listed in the Table of Contents; corresponding items on the

particular student evaluation questionnaire used in collecting the

suggestions appear in Appendix A and a parallel self-evaluation

form appears in Appendix B.

Each suggestion is presented in the same format, one to a page.  It

begins with "If You Want To" followed by one or more desired

outcomes, the first of which corresponds to the specific section

topic.  A one-sentence description of the suggestion is then

presented, giving the essence of the idea.  Following the shorthand

description are one or more paragraphs which elaborate the

suggestion in terms of its logistics, rationale, and origin.  At

the bottom of the page possible limitations on the use of the

suggestions are noted.  

Most of the suggestions in the compendium can be implemented

quickly with little or no changes in teaching style or activities. 

Some require careful planning and modification of course structure

or format.  In all cases, the suggestions are meant to be stimuli

for thinking about teaching, not pat answers or panaceas.

We recognize that there is more than one way of teaching well. 

Therefore, the ideas presented in the compendium offer a range of

effective strategies for improving teaching from which an

instructor can select those which best suit his or her teaching

style as well as the course level, size, and content. With

judicious selection and adaptation, both novice and experienced

teachers can augment their teaching strengths, correct or

ameliorate their teaching weaknesses, and greatly expand their

repertoire of teaching techniques to respond to new teaching

situations.

#end

#card !source of suggestions!Source of the Suggestions!

The 212 suggestions presented in this compendium were, with few

exceptions, contributed by members of the faculty of the University

of California, Berkeley.  Most of the suggestions were gathered

from recipients of the Distinguished Teaching Award given annually

by the Academic Senate Committee on Teaching.  The process used in

collecting the suggestions was as follows:

(1)  With the permission of the faculty members, student in their 

     classes were asked to complete an end-of-course teaching     

     evaluation form (similar to that shown in Appendix A);

(2)  These data and student open-ended comments were analyzed and 

     five or six of the items which students said were most       

     descriptive of a teacher were selected as the basis for an   

     interview;

(3)  Faculty members were asked to describe the specific, concrete 

     things that they did which may have led their students to say 

     that these items were very descriptive of their teaching;

(4)  These suggestions then formed the basis for consulting with  

     individual faculty members about ways of improving their     

     teaching in a special three-year project;

(5)  From a pool of over 450 suggestions, those with widest       

     applicability were selected and edited for inclusion in this 

     compendium designed to be a reference tool that could be used 

     by a consultant or by a faculty member directly.

#end

#ends

#include table_of_contents

#section

#card !Section One: !DISCUSSING POINTS OF VIEW OTHER THAN YOUR OWN!

!1!Number 1: Select a textbook! which presents one theoretical    

             perspective or point of view and build your lectures 

             around an opposing set of ideas.

!2!Number 2: Assign readings! to represent a variety of viewpoints.

!3!Number 3: Present each of several competing theories! as if you 

             were an adherent of that position.

!4!Number 4: Invite guest speakers! whose viewpoints differ from  

             your own.

!5!Number 5: Draw upon the diverse backgrounds! and experiences of 

             your students to introduce different points of view.

!6!Number 6: Use student opinion to create a microcosm! of        

             society's attitudes on social, political and economic 

             issues. 

#end

#card !1!Discussing Points of View Other Than Your Own!

                                        Suggestion Number:  1

IF YOU WANT TO:

*  Discuss points of view other than your own

*  Contrast implications of various theories

*  Stimulate students to think critically

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Selecting a textbook which presents one theoretical perspective or

point of view and building your lectures around an opposing set of

ideas.

A professor of economics, for example, assigns a textbook that

represents the point of view of liberal economists, but designs the

lecture presentations around the opposing views of leading

conservatives or radicals.

In addition to assuring a balanced presentation, this approach adds

variety and interest to the course and stimulates students to think

critically.  Because the lecture material complements rather than

repeats the textbook, it has the added benefit of increasing

attendance at lecture.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture/discussion 

#end

#card !2!Assigning Multiple Readings!

                                        Suggestion Number:  2

IF YOU WANT TO:

*  Discuss points of view other than your own

*  Contrast implications of various theories

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning multiple readings to represent a variety of viewpoints.

"Because the most controversial issues covered in the course are

ones on which the students have strong opinions but little

information, I try to expose them to diametrically opposite

positions or theories," says one professor of political science.

A professor of business administration adopts the same strategy. 

"I use the semi-socratic technique to lead the students through an

analysis and critique of each theorist's position."  The focus is

not on opinions but the reasons behind them.  Sometimes my own view

is apparent, either explicitly or implicitly; other times it is

not."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion:

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture/Discussion 

#end

#card !3!Acting as the "Devil's Advocate"!

                                        Suggestion Number:  3

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Contrast implications of several theories

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Presenting each of several competing theories as if you were an

adherent of that position.

A professor of psychology introduces three major approaches or

schools of thought in the field.  "I discuss each one historically

and contrast the basic elements and implications of each," he says. 

"I really don't have a point of view in this course.  There is so

little known with impartial certainty; I don't think one is

justified in taking a position at this time.  Therefore, I present

the best case for each theory, then analyze each critically and

comparatively."

Even though they do have a distinct point of view, several other

excellent teachers report that they also present the best case for

each of several completing theories before they reveal their own

preferences.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None 

#end

#card !4!Using a Guest Speaker With a Different Viewpoint!

                                        Suggestion Number:  4

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Vary the format of your presentation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Inviting guest speakers whose viewpoints differ from your own.

A professor of education makes a point of doing this in his courses

so that students are exposed to a variety of positions.  "I want

them to understand what the different points of view are, and one

of the best ways I have found to do that is to invite a colleague

or

practitioner, whom I know to be an adherent of each view, to make

a presentation to the class."

See also suggestion 150 for tips on the most effective ways to use

guest speakers in the course.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !5!Having Students Discuss Their Viewpoints!

                                        Suggestion Number:  5

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Invite students to share their knowledge and experiences

     *  Get to know students

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Drawing upon the diverse backgrounds and experiences of your

students to introduce different points of view.

At the beginning of the term, a professor of business

administration asks students to provide written answers to a series

of questions about their backgrounds and reasons for taking the

course.  The questions cover topics such as:  students' work

experience, term papers of research projects, voluntary activities,

personal experiences, and extracurricular interests.  He asks

students to focus particularly on any experiences which might give

them a particular viewpoint on social, political, and economic

issues to be covered in the course.

In conjunction with a seating chart he calls on students whose

prior experiences or interests may be relevant to a given topic

under discussion.  In this way a full range of views are introduced

in the course.  "Often, with little or no effort, I am able to get

students debating between themselves.  In fact, I rarely give my

own point of view until there has been a full discussion of the

different points of view within the class itself."

This technique has additional advantages:  the introduction of

personal experiences and opinions tends to make the class livelier;

and the instructor is given a method for learning at least some of

the students' names by attaching students to their backgrounds,

experiences and personalities.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture/discussion primarily 

#end

#card !6!Using Students' Viewpoints as Societal Microcosm!

                                        Suggestion Number:  6

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Invite students to share their views on controversial     

        topics

YOU MAY WITH TO CONSIDER:

Using student opinions to create a microcosm of society's attitudes

on social, political and economic issues.

At the beginning of a term, a professor of economics gives students

a questionnaire in which they are asked to agree or disagree with

a series of controversial statements on the functioning of the

economy. "Because the introductory course is so large (over 800

students), it is impossible to invite discussion even though many

students enter the course with strong views about such matters as

the causes and cures of inflation," he explains.

"As a substitute for discussion, I use the survey results to

introduce a variety of student viewpoints.  Throughout the semester

I reveal selected results from the survey as these relate to new

concepts or issues covered in reading and lectures.  This technique

gives the students a sense of personal involvement in the subject

matter.  At the same time, the use of student data allows me to

introduce most of the views currently reflected in the society as

a whole."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  Above 25 to provide a range of opinion

        Mode:  Lecture

#end

#ends

#section

#card !Section Two:  !DISCUSSING RECENT DEVELOPMENTS!

!7!Number  7:  Telephone colleagues! who are conducting state-of- 

               the-art research on course topics to get the latest 

               information.

!8!Number  8:  Require students to read current journal articles.!

!9!Number  9:  Require reading of newspapers or periodicals.!

!10!Number 10:  Share your professional "junk mail"! with your    

               students.

!11!Number 11:  Set aside class time! to let students know about  

               community events and resources which will expand   

               their understanding of the subject matter.

#end

#card !7!Getting the Latest Research!

                                        Suggestion Number:  7

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Convey a sense of the open-ended nature of research

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Telephoning colleagues who are conducting state-of-the-art research

on key course topics to get the latest information.

For example, before giving her lecture on the heart, a physiology

professor calls researchers at Stanford and UCSF to get the most

recent statistics and findings on heart transplants.  Similarly, a

law professor directly contacts attorneys involved in important

cases pending or under adjudication, making her lectures even more

up-to-date than the Advance Sheets which give the first printed

results of court decisions.

A professor in geography routinely calls his contacts in Washington

to get the latest information on environmental legislation which he

incorporates into his lectures.

This kind of up-to-the-minute reporting on a few major developments

relevant to the course content can help you convey a sense of the

excitement of research to students.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with recent developments

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !8!Requiring Current Journal Articles!

                                        Suggestion Number:  8

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Help students to understand technical or professional    

         literature

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Requiring students to read current journal articles.

"It's important for students to be exposed to state-of-the-art

ideas and materials even in a lower division course,"  says one

political science professor.  "I try to make sure that the reading

list contains at least a few recent publications or journal

articles, even in the introductory course."

"Actually, in some ways it is easier to introduce recent

developments in the field to lower division students than to

graduate students," according to a faculty member in the biological

sciences.  "I do this by over-generalizing.  Usually this involves

translating the abstract of a journal article in terms a layman can

understand and presenting the basic findings or conclusions in a

narrative fashion, using little or no actual data."

"I want students to become excited by the open-ended nature of

science. I want them to understand that almost nothing that they

are learning is the final word, that there is still much that we

don't know.  Even the best textbook cannot convey that; you have to

do it with supplemental materials."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion:

  Discipline:  Subjects with recent developments

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !9!Requiring Current Newspapers and Periodicals!

                                        Suggestion Number:  9

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Connect course content with current events

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

      

Requiring students to read current newspapers or periodicals.

An economist, for example, assigns the Tuesday editorial page of

the Wall Street Journal each week.  She uses these editorials as a

basis for discussions and for exam questions, having students

compare them with textbook presentations on related topics.

A teacher in the biological sciences also believes strongly in

making use of articles in current periodicals.  "I keep my eyes

open for stories on recent developments which have become part of

the `current events' literature," he says.  "For example, in a

discussion of recombinant DNA, I was able to use photos from a

recent issue of Life Magazine, as well as a story the Wall Street

Journal did on the Genetech Corporation."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects for which there are appropriate readings

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !10!Sharing Your "Junk Mail"!

                                        Suggestion Number: 10

IF YOU WANT TO:    

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Introduce students to professional activities

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Sharing your professional "junk mail" with your students.

In his graduate courses, a professor of education makes a point of

passing around program announcements for local conferences, program

proceedings, and advertisements for new books and journals in the

field.  "In this way I inform students about professional

activities and recent developments of which they might not

otherwise be aware," he says.

"I also encourage students to attend professional meetings and

conferences and to request papers on topics of interest to them.

It's simply another way to socialize them to the profession."

A faculty member teaching introductory French also shares copies of

newsletters, newspaper clippings, and announcements of French

movies, plays or other cultural events in the Bay Area.  "Students

are often amazed and delighted to learn that there are so many

opportunities to strengthen their language skills and to expand

their understanding and enjoyment of French culture," he explains.

Limitations on Use of Suggestions

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !11!Discussing Community Events!

                                        Suggestion Number: 11

      

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Expand students' knowledge and appreciation of the subject

      *  Encourage students to take advantage of course-related   

         activities

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Setting aside class time to let students know about community

events and resources which will expand their understanding of the

subject matter.

"Every Monday I distribute a calendar announcing course-related

events not only on the campus but in the Bay Area," one social

science faculty member explains.  "The events include dance

troupes, plays, lectures, demonstrations, poetry readings and so

forth.  In this way the content of the course can be expanded far

beyond what I can actually cover in class.  I also encourage

students to use these local resources in their research and writing

assignments.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !Section Three!GIVING REFERENCES!

!12!Number 12:  Distribute a bibliographic list! of recommended

                readings on each major topic covered by the course.

!13!Number 13:  Prepare two lists of references! for each course

                topic to respond to student diversity.

#end

#card !12!Distributing a Bibliography of Recommended Readings!    

                                    Suggestion Number:  12

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give references for more interesting and involved points

      *  Encourage students to read further on a topic

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

      

Distributing a bibliography of recommended readings on each major

topic covered by the course.

Some faculty members include these bibliographies (annotated or

not) as part of their course syllabus; others distribute them

weekly as each new topic is introduced.  "Updating and annotating

these bibliographies is made easier if you keep a file on each topic and

insert journal articles, book reviews, or notes throughout the

year," a professor of education points out.  "Typically, I can use

the same bibliography for two or three years," says a professor of

forestry. "In the interim years, I just append new items or write

them out on the board."

A teacher in political science distributes a bibliography and has

students annotate the references as an assignment.  Another has his

TA do the annotation.  "In this way I can be certain that the TA is

familiar with all the recommended readings for the course," he

says.  "Because the TA is typically one of my own graduate

students, this exercise also provides an excellent preparation for

orals."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  Upper division and graduate

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !13!Preparing Two Lists of References!

                                        Suggestion Number:  13

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give references for more interesting and involved points

      *  Encourage students to do additional reading

      *  Accommodate the diversity of students interests and      

         background preparation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Preparing two lists of references for each major topic in the

course to respond to student diversity.

A faculty member in the biological sciences gives students two sets

of references on each topic for optional reading.  The first list

recommends readings which might be helpful to students whose

background in prerequisite courses may be weak; the second list

includes readings of interest to students who wish to pursue a

particular topic in greater depth.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !Section Four!EMPHASIZING CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING!

!14!Number 14:  Give students a conceptual framework! on which to 

                hang the major ideas and the factual information of 

                the course.

!15!Number 15:  Focus your course on the classic issues! and      

                concepts in your discipline.

!16!Number 16:  Stress the most enduring values! or truths in your 

                discipline.

!17!Number 17:  Repeatedly touch base with the fundamentals! or   

                basics.

!18!Number 18:  Model processes! of deductive or inductive        

                reasoning.

!19!Number 19:  Pose paradoxes for students to solve.!

!20!Number 20:  Divide your course into parts.!

#end

#card !14!Giving Students A Conceptual Framework!

                                        Suggestion Number:  14

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Giving students a conceptual framework on which to hang the major

ideas and the factual information of the course.

The framework might be a structure, a theme, a conceptual typology,

a controversial issue, or a theory.  It should be made salient to

the students through repeated reference.  As one professor of

physiology points out, "To the uninitiated, the field looks like a

mass of facts; by establishing a conceptual framework, one

minimizes the amount of rote memorization the students will have to

do.

Often the framework can be represented symbolically or graphically.

Another physiologist, for example, begins each lecture by drawing

the same outline of the human brain on the blackboard.  The details

of the brain, in terms of structures and processes, change

according to the specific topics to be  covered in that day's

lecture.

A sociology professor uses a basic typology as the conceptual

framework for his course; this typology is sketched on the

blackboard each day in the form of a matrix into which new

information is written.  He stresses the need to tie the basic

facts together, to make the conceptual linkages for students.

A history professor uses the concept "Attitudes toward Natural

Resources" rather than chronology as the organizing principle.  A

professor of Spanish literature identifies two or three major

concepts (e.g., irony or tragedy) and applies them repeatedly in

lecture, discussion and assignments to reinforce student

understanding.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !15!Stressing Fundamental Concepts and Issues!

                                        Suggestion Number:  15

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Stress fundamental concepts and issues in your discipline

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Focusing your course on the classic issues and concepts in your

discipline.

A history professor explains that she has moved away from

presenting the most esoteric and up-to-date concerns of

professional historians in her undergraduate courses.  "The most

interesting issues and themes for undergraduates, " she explains,

"generally turn out to be those which originally excited historians

about a particular person, event, or epoch, not the

historiographical controversies of present day historians.

"The classic issues are the ones which attracted me to the field,"

she says, "and I find that they are still the most exciting for

students." Following this approach does not mean that you cannot

introduce new research findings where they are relevant, of course. 

Nor does this suggest that ideas which have little or no current

validity should be taught.  It does mean that, in limiting your

coverage, you select the major classic themes and concepts wherever

possible.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects for which the classic concepts remain     

               relevant

Course Level:  Primarily undergraduate courses 

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !16!Stressing Enduring Values of the Discipline!

                                        Suggestion Number:  16

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Stimulate the students to think critically

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Stressing the most enduring values or truths in your discipline.

"I stress the permanent values in literature, the emotional

responses that a particular novel or collection of novels elicits

from us all," says a professor of English.  "I try to get the

students to understand why they respond to a given novel the way

they do."

After the class has discussed how they feel about a novel (the

common emotions it arouses) he tries to lead them to analyze,

understand, and explain why nearly everyone feels that way.  He

poses questions such as:  What must literature be like in order to

get us to respond the way we do?  Why does a particular novel

affect everyone in the same way?  "Behind all my questions is the

search for a way of analyzing and discussing literature that will

explain the most with the fewest assumptions."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Humanities and Social Sciences

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !17!Reinforcing the Basics!

                                        Suggestion Number:  17

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Reinforce student understanding

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Repeatedly touching base with the fundamentals or basics.

One engineering professor believes that too much of science and

engineering is presented to students in a rote, plug-in-the-numbers

way.  "There are thousands of formulas," he points out, "but all of

these are variations on a very limited number of basic ideas or

theories."  These basic ideas are `ideal theories' from which are

derived all the `approximate' or `technical theories' which

engineers use."

"I try to teach students how to judge when we can use an

approximate theory with confidence and when we are forced to go to

a more

rigorous level.  In this way, I keep touching base with the

fundamentals to reinforce students understanding of them."

Another engineering teacher concurs.  "Students typically are

presented with 100 different equations in each course they take. 

They are exposed to 1100-1200 equations overall.  Rote memorization

is futile; no one can remember that many equations.  You have to

point out over and over again that these 1200 equations are all

embedded in about 8 basic ones."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Scientific fields

Course Level:  None 

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !18!Modeling Reasoning and Problem-Solving Techniques!

                                        Suggestion Number:  18

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Model various reasoning and problem-solving techniques

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

      

Modeling processes of deductive or inductive reasoning by which an

explanation becomes apparent.

A professor of English says that nearly all of his lectures "follow

a logic and discovery procedure, that is, `Let's make assumption A

and then see if B follows from that.'  My lectures take the form of

unraveling this process, with questions posed to the students to

check the validity of the analysis," he says.

A professor of architecture says that because he has an abiding

interest in questions of cause and effect, his lectures tend to

take the form of "What would happen if..."  Problem-solving

approaches which closely involve the students are characteristic of

many excellent teachers.  An engineering teacher, for example,

begins his lectures by posing a problem which he proceeds to work

out on the blackboard, labeling each step and sharing his reasoning

with the class as he works.  "I try to model a style of analytic

thinking which I hope the students will emulate," he explains.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !19!Posing Paradoxes!

                                        Suggestion Number:  19

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Challenge students to think

YOU MAY WISH TO:

      

Pose paradoxes for the students to solve.

A chemistry professor emphasizes conceptual understanding by

challenging the students with apparent paradoxes.  "Several times

each semester," he says, "I set up a demonstration to give a visual

result that is at variance with that which is described in the

textbook.  The students are then helped to explain the paradox by

applying a variety of problem solving techniques."

"This kind of demonstration really gets the students thinking," he

says. "Furthermore, many of the students tell me that they learn

much more from seeing than from reading.  It gives them another way

of understanding and helps them gain self-confidence that they do

in fact understand."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Sciences primarily

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !20!Responding to Student Diversity!

                                        Suggestion Number:  20

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Respond to student diversity

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

A zoology professor focuses the first part of the course on

fundamentals and the second part on "state-of-the-art" research. 

"The first six weeks cover the basic concepts and fundamental

processes all students must learn about the subject," he says.  In

this segment he eliminates many "nice to know" concepts in favor of

going over the basics in a very thorough way.

"Because the students are very heterogeneous (including

undergraduates who have taken only introductory biology as well as

graduate students in zoology), I spend the first six weeks making

certain that everyone is brought up to approximately the same level

of understanding of the fundamentals.  Then in the last weeks of

the course, I introduce the latest research experiments in the

field.  In effect, the first half of the course is made up of

`little white lies,' that is, the simplified constructs of the

field.  In the latter weeks, the emphasis is on how research is

actually done and how little we really know."

A professor of physics uses a similar strategy throughout his

lower-division course.  He divides course topics into three groups: 

those which are "Basic" (i.e., should be mastered by every

student); those which are "Recommended" (i.e., should be mastered

by every student seeking a good competence in the subject); and

those which are "Optional" (i.e., should be mastered only by those

students with specialized interests).

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  Courses enrolling students with diverse preparation 

Course Size:  None 

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !Section Five!EXPLAINING CLEARLY!

!21!Number 21:  Focus your lectures on a few main points.!

!22!Number 22:  Carefully define all concepts and terms.!

!23!Number 23:  Rephrase explanations of major points! several    

                times.

!24!Number 24:  Use lots of concrete or memorable examples.!

!25!Number 25:  Demonstrate! a concept or ideas rather than simply 

                describe or discuss it.

!26!Number 26:  Empathize! with students' difficulties in learning 

                the material for the first time.

!27!Number 27:  Acknowledge the difficulty! and importance of     

                concepts students are likely to find hard to      

                understand.

#end

#card !21!Focusing Your Lectures!

                                        Suggestion Number:  21

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Focusing your lecture on a few main points and omitting unnecessary

exceptions, complexities or details.

"The key to explaining clearly,' says one economics professor, "is

to limit the amount of material covered by a single lecture.  The

critical error made by many faculty members is trying to include

too much by a factor of six."

"I generally focus on three main points and repeat these in various

ways throughout my lecture.  Beginning undergraduates do not need

to be exposed to the intricacies and complexities of a discipline;

indeed, introducing them to these will only confuse them. 

Introductory course are best taught by focusing on the

fundamentals, using generalizations, and avoiding too many

exceptions to the rule."

A history professor concurs.  "I tell undergraduates, `Here is what

I think you can say is true, despite all the past and current

debates of historians.' I don't go into those debates because they

are complex and undergraduates are not sophisticated enough about

historiography to appreciate them."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  Undergraduate 

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !22!Carefully Defining Concepts and Terms!

                                        Suggestion Number:  22

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Respond to student diversity

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Carefully defining all concepts and terms.

A faculty member in the biological sciences points out that you

cannot assume that the students know or remember concepts and terms

from previous courses.  "If I use a word for the first time, I

write it on the board and define it.  I do this even if it is a

concept or term that students have presumably learned in

introductory biology and chemistry courses."

Another faculty member underscores the importance of giving

students a clear definition of terms.  "If the term is not defined

or is poorly defined in their textbook, I point that out and then

give them the clearest definition I have been able to find."  He

frequently looks at three or four introductory texts to find the

clearest definition of a term, especially if it is either not

defined or not defined well in the textbook used in the course.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !23!Rephrasing!

                                        Suggestion Number:  23

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize the main point

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Rephrasing explanations of major points several times.

"Repetition leads to learning," one science professor says.  "I

repeat major points several times from a different direction or in

different words."

"No single explanation will be clear to all students," points out

a professor of business administration.  "By using different

language or different examples, I maximize the chances that every

student will eventually understand."

A political science professor also consciously alters the words he

uses. "I have a tendency to say things twice," he says:  "first,

formally and then colloquially."  An engineering professor reports

that he develops the same point in two or three different modes,

e.g., mathematically, verbally, and graphically.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !24!Using Concrete Examples!

                                        Suggestion Number:  24

IF YOU WANT TO:  

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using lots of concrete or memorable examples.

Most excellent teachers agree that the choice of examples is very

important, favoring those that are anecdotal, personal or humorous

because they find that students tend to remember these best.  "I

use concrete examples wherever possible," says an anatomy

professor. "For instance, I describe a particular body organ by

comparing its size or texture to an object familiar to students,

like a walnut."

An economics professor also places importance on using concrete

examples of interest to students.  "I use specific examples

whenever I can.  In talking about inflation and price controls I'll

use the price of Prince tennis rackets or Sony Walkmans rather than

apples or a general product."

A forestry professor uses the same strategy.  "In talking about

acre-feet of water, first I define it formally and then I give

several examples which will help them appreciate the amount of

water represented, such as `equivalent to 77,000,000 ice cubes.'

Students tend to remember examples like that," he explains.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !25!Demonstrating Concepts!

                                        Suggestion Number:  25

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Demonstrating a concept or idea rather than simply describing or

discussing it.

"Whenever possible, try to avoid talking about something in its

absence," one teacher says.  "For example, don't tell students how

to present a logical argument; present a logical argument and help

them to analyze it.  Don't describe how to solve a problem;

demonstrate how to solve it on the blackboard and label and

describe the steps and your reasons for them as you go."

Demonstrations are superior to discussions because they make use of

additional senses.  Drawing examples from everyday experiences,

even if they cannot be demonstrated in class, will help students to

visualize or re-experience them and reinforce their learning.

Use visual imagery whenever possible.  Even if a live demonstration

or the use of visual aids is not practical, the use of metaphors

and analogies that give students a mental image to draw upon can

help reinforce their understanding and recall.  For example, a

physics professor helps students "get ready" for a discussion of

velocity by asking them, "Have you ever seen a quarterback throw a

football into the wind?  Have you ever thrown a ball into the wind

yourself?  What happens?"

Teachers can often make use of slides, maps, tape recordings, live

or filmed dramatizations, charts, diagrams, demonstrations, and

actual cultural artifacts to illustrate the subject matter.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !26!Empathizing With Students' Difficulties! in Learning

Material

                                         Suggestion Number:  26

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Help students follow explanations or difficult concepts

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Empathizing with the students' difficulties in learning the

material for the first time.

A faculty member in the sciences says that he noticed that he had

taught the course better the first time than he did the second

time. "When I asked myself why, I realized that in preparing the

course for the first time, I really had to work hard to master

certain parts of the material in order to explain it to the

students.  The next time, however, these concepts no longer seemed

difficult to me. Unfortunately I forgot that they would still be

difficult for the students.  Now I color-code all of my lecture

notes, keying the parts that students are likely to find difficult

and making a special effort to make those points very clear."

A physics professor also tries to put himself in the students'

shoes. "After I have finished writing up a set of lecture notes,"

he says, "I review them carefully, asking myself: `What might the

students find hard to follow in that line of reasoning?'  `What

examples might make that more clear?'  This has now become the most

important part of my lecture preparation."

Several faculty members report making notes to themselves of

explanations that worked well and those that didn't.  They also

keep records of the kinds of errors students most commonly make in

assignments and exams as a reminder of what students find most

difficult to understand.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !27!Acknowledging the Difficulty and Importance of Concepts! 

                                       Suggestion Number:  27

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Identify what you think is important

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Acknowledging the difficulty and importance of concepts students

are likely to find hard to understand.

One engineering teacher says, "I consciously cue the students to

the most difficult ideas by saying such things as, `Almost everyone

has difficulty with this one, so listen closely.'  "Because the

level of students' attention varies throughout the hour, it is

important to get everyone listening carefully before introducing a

new concept or explaining a difficult point.

A forestry professor agrees.  "I make a special effort to slow down

and get everyone's attention when I come to a concept I know

students will find difficult."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !Section Six!BEING WELL PREPARED!

!28!Number 28:  Keep a set of cumulative notes! for each course   

                topic.

!29!Number 29:  Keep a journal.!

!30!Number 30:  Completely rework your lecture notes! each time you 

                teach the course.

!31!Number 31:  Review! the relevant sections of several textbooks 

                for each lecture topic.

!32!Number 32:  Use an abbreviated set of lecture notes.!

!33!Number 33:  Reread! the texts assigned to students.

!34!Number 34:  Prepare handouts! of the lecture outline and any  

                detailed formulas, derivations or illustrations.

!35!Number 35:  Prepare a detailed course syllabus.!

!36!Number 36:  Teach the same course in a subsequent semester.!

!37!Number 37:  Audit the same or related courses! taught by      

                colleagues.

#end

#card !28!Reviewing!

                                        Suggestion Number:  28

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well prepared

      *  Develop a system for updating lectures

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Keeping a set of cumulative notes for each course topic.

Most teachers keep a chronological set of lecture notes from

the first to the most recent time they have taught a course. 

Many teachers keep separate notes for each lecture topic. 

"To these I add research articles, newspaper clippings,

cartoons, ideas for assignments or exam questions and notes

to myself for improving the lecture or discussion," reports

a professor of English.

By keeping separate topic files and inserting new materials

and notes of new ideas throughout the year, it becomes much

easier to prepare a new set of lecture notes with improved

or more up-to-date examples, assignments, or explanations

the next time you teach.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !29!Keeping a Journal!

                                        Suggestion Number: 29 

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well prepared

      *  Profit from your own mistakes

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Keeping a journal.

One history professor has found it very effective to keep a

brief journal or diary for each course.  "After each

lecture, I jot down a few notes about how the class went: 

explanations and examples that worked well and those that

didn't, students' difficulties with the text, techniques for

generating discussions, and so forth.  If something went

very badly, I correct it at the next meeting.  For the most

part, however, I keep the journal to help me improve the

course next time."

Although a journal of this type could be beneficial to any

teacher, its value is greatest for new instructors or for

faculty members teaching a new course or a course they teach

only every few years.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !30!Reworking Your Lecture Notes!

                                        Suggestion Number:  30

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Maintain your enthusiasm for the subject matter

      *  Have your course reflect your own professional growth

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Completely reworking your lecture notes each time you teach

the course.

"It's important to completely redo my notes each time I

teach the course," says an economics professor.  It helps me

rethink the material so that the ideas seem fresh and new to

me as well as to the students.  This increases my enthusiasm

for the subject matter and I think this is communicated to

the students."

"My lectures change somewhat every time I teach the course,"

says a professor of psychology.  "In this way, over a period

of six to eight years, they change quite radically.  This is

partly because the field is changing, but it is also because

my own ideas continue to develop."

Although the myth of the professor who teaches with yellowed

and musty notes is almost unheard of in a major university,

the importance of re-creating lecture notes each time a

course is taught -- even if back-to-back within the same

year -- was stressed by nearly all excellent teachers as a

way of keeping themselves fresh and interested as well as

interesting to the students.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture, primarily

#end

#card !31!Reviewing Relevant Sections of Textbooks!

                                        Suggestion Number:  31  

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Introduce recent developments in the field

      *  Have your lectures complement the textbook

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Reviewing the relevant sections of several textbooks for

each lecture topic.

A faculty member teaching a lower division course in the

biological sciences says that in preparing each lecture he

starts by comparing three or four introductory texts.  He

then looks at one or two specialized books on the given

concept or biological process.

"There is no such thing as the perfect textbook; each has

its strengths and weaknesses.  By comparing several

approaches, I am able to distill the best definitions,

explanations and examples and am less likely to overlook

important aspects of the topic.  It also helps me to

complement the textbook rather than repeat it in lecture.  I

also include simplified accounts of recent developments in

the field taken from my own professional reading whenever it

is appropriate."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !32!Using Abbreviated Notes!

                                        Suggestion Number: 32 

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Have a more interesting style of presentation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using an abbreviated set of lecture notes.

Many excellent teachers describe a two-stage process in the

preparation of their lecture notes.  A history professor,

for example, says "First, I write out a detailed set of

lecture notes over the weekend or the night before class. 

Then, on the morning before class, I take about an hour and

a half to reduce these notes to a brief outline on index

cards."

"Students like structure," he explains.  "But they do not

like terribly formal lectures delivered verbatim.  Once I

have worked out fully what I want to say, I communicate it

more forcefully and more informally from a small number of

index cards.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture, primarily

#end

#card !33!Rereading the Texts!

                                        Suggestion Number:  33

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Identify what you think is most important

      *  Complement the textbook

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Rereading the texts assigned to students.

Teachers in several disciplines report that a major part of

their preparation is rereading the texts assigned to

students.  "I reread the text assignment over the weekend

not only to ensure that it is fresh in my mind," says one

history professor, "but also so I can acknowledge the parts

I found dull, unclear, or especially important."

An English professor says, "No matter how well I think I

know the literary texts assigned, I reread them very

carefully so that they are vivid in my mind."

An anatomy professor reports that he rereads the text just

after he finishes his lecture notes.  "I always check my

lecture notes against the text a final time," he says,"to be

sure that I am complementing rather than repeating the text

and to note any disagreements I have with its author."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !34!Preparing Handouts of Lecture Outlines!

                                        Suggestion Number:  34

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Preparing handouts of the lecture outline and any detailed

formulae, derivations, or illustrations to be presented in

the class.

"My handouts include the essential points of my lecture,

including definitions, notations, important formula, and

derivations, " says one professor of business

administration.  "Students could not cut class and rely

solely on the notes, however, because they are not self-

explanatory.  Essentially they are designed to help the

students follow the main structure of the lecture and to

keep them from getting bogged down in copying details."

Several excellent teacher report that they make judicious

use of handouts covering the most important, detailed, or

complex topics covered in their lectures.  Not everyone

favors handouts, however.  "Analytical material can't be

learned by watching and reading alone," says one engineering

professor.  "It must be learned by doing, by writing it

out."  He puts important material on the blackboard,

discussing the steps and labeling them as he goes to aid

students in their note taking.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture primarily

#end

#card !35!Preparing A Detailed Course Syllabus!

                                        Suggestion Number:  35

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared      

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Preparing a detailed course syllabus.

"My syllabus usually runs about 15 pages," says a professor

of education.  "It is organized by class session and each

section consists of the major topic, four to eight important

study questions or issues the students are expected to

understand or be prepared to discuss, and the required

reading and recommended supplemental readings.  The syllabus

also describes the assignments, grading procedures, and the

competencies students are expected to have (i.e., the things

they are expected to be able to do) at the end of the

course."

In addition to his own detailed syllabus, a professor of

forestry also prepares what he calls a "quasi-syllabus" for

students.  "The students' syllabus (which is sold to them at

cost) includes a course outline and a complete set of the

graphs, charts, and biological drawings which I show on

slides during lectures," he explains.  "In this way,

students can study and review the supplementary materials

outside of class in conjunction with the text and notes

taken during lecture."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !36!Teaching the Course Again!

                                        Suggestion Number:  36 

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Profit from your own mistakes

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Teaching the same course in a subsequent semester.

One chemistry professor frequently teaches the same course

"back to back" in two consecutive terms.  "This way I can

maximize learning from mistakes I have made," he explains.

"I make notes to myself about what went well in the course

and what didn't as it goes along," he says.  "For example, I

might make a note saying, `Don't forget to emphasize this

point before that point.'  Executing these suggestions to

myself the very next semester reinforces my own learning."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Courses offered every term.

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !37!Auditing Related Courses!

                                        Suggestion Number:  37  

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Get ideas for teaching a course for the first time

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Auditing the same or related courses taught by colleagues.

One faculty member of computer science reports that he makes

it a habit to audit other faculty members' courses. 

"Particularly if I know I am scheduled to teach a course for

the first time," he explains, "I make a point of taking the

course from the best instructor available.  I attend all of

the class sessions and usually do most of the homework.  I

find this is a much easier way to do some advanced

preparation than sitting down and reading several textbooks. 

It forces me to do some preparation each week."

"Taking the course from a colleague not only provides a good

review of the content, but I often pick up two or three good

teaching techniques as well.  Later, I do additional

research and design the course my own way, but I have the

great advantage of building on a model created by a

colleague."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  Courses taught frequently by several professors    

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !SECTION SEVEN!GIVING LECTURES THAT ARE EASY TO OUTLINE!

!38!Number 38:  Let students know what you're going to discuss! and 

                why at the beginning of the lecture.

!39!Number 39:  Write an outline! for your lecture on the         

                blackboard before you begin.

!40!Number 40:  Give students a list of questions! which cover    

                topics to be addressed in your lecture.

!41!Number 41:  Outline! your lecture on the blackboard as it

                develops.

!42!Number 42:  Structure your lecture! as you would a journal    

                article.

!43!Number 43:  Use "closed lists"! wherever possible in your

                lectures.

!44!Number 44:  Organize your lectures into 10-minute segments.!

!45!Number 45:  Schedule a break if your class exceeds one hour.!

!46!Number 46:  Pay attention to your boardwork.!

#end

#card !38!Letting Students Know Topics to Be Covered! From the

Beginning

                                        Suggestion Number:  38  

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  State objectives for each class section

      *  Summarize major points

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning each lecture by letting the students know what you

are going to talk about and why.

An engineering professor refers to this as his "battle plan."  "At

the beginning of the hour, I give them a battle plan so they know

where the discussion is going and can follow it more easily," he

says.  "For example, I tell them that I'm going to discuss such-

and-such a topic for the first twenty minutes, show them how to use

it in the next twenty minutes, and then take questions in the last

ten minutes.  By laying out exactly what your are going to do, you

eliminate a lot of student confusion.  You don't want students

spending an hour wondering, `why is he talking about that?' or

`What does that have to do with anything?' instead of concentrating

on what you have to say."

Many excellent teachers cite the old adage, "Tell 'em what

you're going to tell 'em; tell 'em; and then tell 'em what

you've told 'em."  Although it may appear to be an over

simplification in the case of lectures on complex subjects,

the general principle is a good one which can be adapted to

major topics within a lecture as well as to the overall

lecture itself.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture

#end

#card !39!Writing an Outline Before You Begin!

                                        Suggestion Number:  39

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Writing an outline for your lecture on the blackboard before

you begin.

One professor of physiology says that he picked this up from

a colleague when they were team-teaching several years ago. 

"I put the outline of my lecture in the corner of the

blackboard when I first come into class," he says.  "That way

the students can tell at a glance when I've shifted topics and

where we are in the day's discussion.  I also make frequent

reference to the outline to alert students to transitions and

the relationships between topics."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !40!Giving Students A List of Questions!

                                        Suggestion Number:  40  

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  State objectives for each class section

      *  Give students a conceptual framework for taking notes

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Giving students a list of questions which cover topics to be

addressed in your lecture.

One history professor does this routinely.  "By outlining my

lecture as a series of questions," she explains, "I hope to

stimulate the students to think actively during the

presentation.  The questions are designed to give them a

conceptual framework and guide so they can identify where we

are and where we are going in the overall discussion."

"I realize that it is difficult for students to listen

attentively for a full hour," she says.  "Providing them with

an outline of the lecture in question format allows them to

pick up the thread of the discussion more quickly as their

attention fades in and out."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture primarily

#end

#card !41!Outlining Your Lecture on the Blackboard As It Develops! 

                                                                 

Suggestion Number:  41

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Reinforce student learning

      *  Keep yourself from going through the material too rapidly

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Outlining your lecture on the blackboard as it develops.

One professor in the biological sciences says that she always

outlines her lectures on the board as she goes along, using

colored chalk to differentiate major and subordinate heads or

points and to diagram relationships.  On a separate section of the

blackboard she also writes down any technical terms or

names of scientists that the students might not know how to

spell.

"The outline serves to reinforce visually what I am saying,"

she explains.  "Furthermore, it makes clear to everyone where

we have been and where we are going.  An added bonus is that

writing the outline on the board as I go along slows down my

lecture pace: it serves as an automatic `brake' and keeps me

from racing through the material."

"I prefer to use the board as I go along," an engineering

professor says.  "I think this emphasizes the importance of

major ideas better because they are revealed in the context of the

discussion."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture

#end

#card !42!Structuring Your Lectures Like A Journal Article!

                                        Suggestion Number:  42  

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  State objectives for each class session

      *  Summarize major points

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Structuring your lectures as you would a journal article.

"Each lecture should have a clearly defined beginning, middle, and

end," a professor of history notes.  A faculty member in computer

science concurs, saying that he prepares his lectures so that they

have the oral equivalents of an introduction, headings,

subheadings, summary, and conclusion.

"Orally highlighting the structure of a lecture serves the same

communication functions as using paragraphs and different type

faces in a journal article," he says.  "It tells the audience what

the topic is, why it is important, what its chief components and

their relationships are, and what conclusions we can draw."

"I firmly believe in sharing the structure and reasoning of my

lectures with the students," he explains.  "I begin each lecture by

stating my objectives.  For example, `Today we are going to discuss

X and its effects of Y and Z.'  I make frequent transitional

phrases, and I leave time to summarize the major points at the end

of the hour."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture

#end

#card !43!Using "Closed Lists"!

                                        Suggestion Number: 43

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Summarize major points

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using "closed lists" whenever possible in your lectures.

A political science teacher says he makes frequent use of

closed lists.  "I make a habit of saying things like, `There

are three main implications of X, number one is...' or

`Remember in the last lecture, we were discussing the six

principal steps that an administrator goes through when...;

these are Number one..., etc.'"

"Closed lists are marvelous," he says.  "They are fictional

constructs, of course, and this needs to be pointed out to the

organizer for the students.  Nevertheless, they provide a good

advanced organizer for the students. Closed lists help them

both to listen for major points and to take notes.  They also

provide a very natural bridge or transition mechanism for letting

students know when your are changing from one topic to another.

Finally, I find that closed lists provide a good structure for

summarizing, because they help differentiate between the main

points and the detailed examples or digressions."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !44!Organizing Your Lecture Into Ten-Minute Segments!

                                        Suggestion Number:  44  

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Organize your lectures to leave time for a summary

      *  Improve the pace and timing of your lectures

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Organizing your lectures into ten-minute segments.

A faculty member who reports doing this says that he learned

the trick from an article in Science written by Nobel

Laureate, Sir Lawrence Bragg.

In the original article, Bragg says, "Some try to get the

timing of a lecture right by, as they say, `running over it

beforehand' and seeing how long it takes...  I prefer to

divide it into some half dozen portions, and allocate about ten

minutes to each, marking this timing in the margin of my rough

notes..."

"The advantage of dividing the time up in this way is that the pace

can be adjusted during the lecture when it is clear that

it is going to be too long or (rarely) too short.  If time is

running long, the part to shorten is the middle where it will

be little noticed.  The beginning or the end must not be

hurried..."  ("The Art of Talking about Science," Science,

Vol. 154, December 1966.)

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture

#end

#card !45!Scheduling A Break!

                                        Suggestion Number: 45

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation

      *  Show interest and concern for students

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Scheduling a break if your class exceeds one hour.

After an hour, it is difficult for students to concentrate and take

notes steadily; their efficiency drops.  Many teachers

provide a break after 50 minutes or so to give students a

chance to regain their concentration.

A physics teacher always takes a short break in his 1 1/2-hour

class.  "I have students stretch at their seat to wake them up and

get their blood circulating."  A faculty member in the

biological sciences has students take a "t'ai chi" break,

leading them through exercises.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !46!Paying Attention to Your Board Work!

                                        Suggestion Number: 46

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline                

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Paying attention to your board work.

One of the best summaries of "blackboard etiquette" we have

found was written by Uri Treisman for the Graduate Assembly's

Handbook for Teaching Assistants (1983).  A few of his

suggestions may help you to avoid what one faculty member has

termed "an autistic chalkboard ballet."  The following is a

summary of Treisman's tips, augmented by those reported by

faculty members.

First, be sure to determine the visibility of the board from

several vantage points in the room.  Second, if you are

teaching in a room with three movable boards, use the middle

board first.  When you are finished push that board up and use the

front board next.  In this way, the information you have

presented can be viewed for a longer period of time.  Third,

if you have a soft voice or are teaching in a large room,

don't lecture while writing with your back to the class unless you

are wearing a microphone.  Also turn to face the class

when making important points so that you can pick up visual

cues as to students comprehension.

Fourth, label the basic components of what you put on the

board, using words like "Theorem," "Proof", "Answer."  This

practice will emphasize the structural aspects of problem

solving and reinforce student learning.  Fifth, don't simplify

expressions by using an eraser while students are trying to

take notes.  Put a single line through the expression you wish to

simplify and write the new expression above it.  If you

omit a computation, indicate that you have done so by writing

"computation omitted."  Sixth, prepare handouts of any

detailed formulae, derivations, or illustrations to be

presented in class.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Primarily mathematics, statistics and sciences

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section 

#card !SECTION EIGHT!SUMMARIZING MAJOR POINTS!

!47!Number 47:  Begin and end your lectures! or discussions with a 

                summary statement.

!48!Number 48:  Use the blackboard for effective summarization.!

!49!Number 49:  Begin with a brief summary! of the last meeting and 

               call for student questions.

#end

#card !47!Beginning and Ending With A Summary Statement!

                                         Suggestion Number:  47

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *   Summarize major points

      *   Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *   Emphasize conceptual understanding

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning and ending your lectures or discussions with a

summary statement.

A history professor finds it helpful to place his watch in

full view on the desk or lectern.  "I watch the clock

carefully to be sure that there is time to summarize the day's

discussion.  Then, at the beginning of the next class session, I

sum up the previous lecture once more before moving on to a

new topic."

"Students crave both continuity and a sense of closure," he

explains.  "They do not like unfinished presentations.  At the same

time, because none of us likes repetition, I try hard to

use different words and examples in each summary.  The best

way I have found to avoid redundancy is to note on an index

card the exact words I have used at the end of a lecture, so

that I am reminded to vary them in the brief recapitulation I

give at the beginning of the next class meeting."

A professor of business administration also uses this

technique.  "Because each concept in this course builds upon

what has gone before, it is important for students to see how

each new topic relates to what they have already learned as

well as to what they will be learning in the coming weeks.  I

find the most effective way of doing this is to begin with a

brief summary of what came before, followed by a brief preview of

what will come next."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !48!Using the Blackboard for Effective Summaries!

                                        Suggestion Number:  48

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *   Summarize major points

      *   Give lectures that are easy to outline

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using the blackboards for effective summarization.

Several excellent teachers stressed the need to plan their

blackboard work carefully so that the most important concepts

are still visible at the end of the hour and can be used in

making a summary.

"I consciously attempt to write clearly and legibly and to be

sure that my boardwork is organized and visible to everyone,"

one engineering professor says.  "At the end of the class, I

use this boardwork to go back over important theorems or

equations, underlining and boxing in colored chalk important

concepts and steps."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !49!Beginning Class With a Summary of the Last Meeting!

                                         Suggestion Number:  49

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *   Summarize major points

      *   Identify what you consider most important

      *   Check students' understanding of a major concepts and   

          ideas

      *   Provide a good transition between major topics

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning each class period with a brief summary of the main

points covered in the last meeting and then calling for

students' questions.

The advantage of summarizing and asking questions at the

beginning of a class period is that, "the students are fresher and

after a brief recapitulation, they are more likely to

realize and acknowledge if they have any problems," as one

teacher puts it.  A variation on this technique is to

summarize and call for questions whenever there is a major

transition from one topic to another within the same lecture.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !SECTION NINE!IDENTIFYING WHAT YOU CONSIDER IMPORTANT!

!50!Number 50:  Calling attention to the most important ideas!    

                in each lecture.

!51!Number 51:  Explaining why a particular point is important.!

!52!Number 52:  Indicating the relative importance of ideas!      

                presented in the lecture.

!53!Number 53:  Using dramatic pauses! and repetition to draw

                students' attention to the main ideas.

#end

#card !50!Calling Attention to the Most Important Ideas!

                                        Suggestion Number:  50

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you think is most important

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Explicitly calling attention to the most important ideas in

each lecture.

"I began to emphasize the main points about ten years ago,"

says one political science professor, "when I discovered that

you can't rely on undergraduates to intuitively know what the

most important points are.  You have to tell them."

Faculty members in several disciplines stress the need to call

students' attention to the most important ideas being

presented.  Some teachers announce the importance of an idea

before presenting it, saying such things as, "This is really

important, so you have to be alert."  Other teachers emphasize the

most important ideas when summarizing, saying, "The most

important thing to remember here is..." or "This is so

important that everyone of you should have it engraved on a

gold plaque and hung over your bed\!"  as one professor of

computer science puts it.  "There is no point in students

having to guess what is important if I can tell them," he

says.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture primarily

#end

#card !51!Explaining Why a Point Is Important!

                                        Suggestion Number:  51

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you think is most important

      *  Motivate students to learn

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Explaining or demonstrating to students why a particular point is

important.

Several teachers believe that the best way to cue students to

the importance of an idea is to show them the role that idea

plays in an overall understanding of the course material or in

applications beyond the course.

"I think it is crucial for students to know why a concept is

important," says one physiology professor.  "Just saying that

it is important is not enough.  You need to put the concept in some

perspective, to show why it is important.  Explaining why an idea

is important not only gets the students' attention, it gives them

a framework on which to hang the idea."

An engineering professor concurs.  "I follow the introduction

of a major concept with lots of specific examples, including

anecdotes which show application of the concept in current

professional practice," he explains.  "You must show students

why it is important to know a particular concept if you expect them

to master it."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !52!Indicating Relative Importance of Ideas!

                                        Suggestion Number:  52

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you consider is most important

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Indicating the relative importance of ideas presented in your

lecture.

A professor of political science says, "I highlight major

points by saying, `This is more important than that.'  For

example, if I am giving a list of six contributing factors to

some phenomenon or event, I identify which in my view are most

important.  I don't want students to go away thinking that

everything I say is of equal weight or importance."

A professor of engineering also thinks it is important to

differentiate between the most and least important ideas

presented in lecture.  Therefore, he tells the students, "You

don't have to memorize everything, but you might want to

remember this..." or "This, on the other hand, is something

you will use so many times that it's worth paying special

attention to."  Used sparingly, he believes that these

prefatory remarks help focus student learning on the most

essential parts of the course.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Lecture

#end

#card !53!Using Dramatic Pauses and Repetition!

                                        Suggestion Number:  53

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you think is important

      *  Vary the speed and tone of your voice

      *  Have a more interesting style of presentation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using dramatic pauses and repetition to draw students'

attention to the main ideas.

Several teachers stress the need for repetition (using

different language or examples) to communicate the most

important points in their lectures.

Dramatic pauses are another way to highlight important ideas.  A

history professor says that she used to tell students, "The

main point is..." but in a matter-of-fact manner, almost as an

aside.  "I discovered that many students did not get the

message," she explains.  "Now I indicate a main point by

pausing to get students' full attention and then saying

emphatically, 'This is the really important consideration\!' 

Then I pause again to be sure they are prepared to write it

down.  If not, I restate the importance of what is to follow.

A sociology professor also uses dramatic pauses and a sense of

timing to stress the most important points in his lectures. 

"I structure each lecture to build up to the crucial point of

the topic," he says.  "Then I announce it in a sweeping

manner, timed to occur at the end of the class period."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !SECTION TEN!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--INTEGRATING DISCUSSION INTO LECTURES!

!54!Number 54:  Divide your lecture into blocks of time!, one of which 

            is a discussion segment.

!55!Number 55:  Make one of the lecture periods a discussion section.!

!56!Number 56:  Move around the room to promote discussion.!

#end

#card !54!Dividing Your Lectures Into Blocks of Time!

                                         Suggestion Number:  54

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Integrate discussion into lecture

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Dividing the class period into blocks of time, one of which is

a discussion segment.

"I found it boring when I was a student simply to listen to a

professor talk for an hour and a half," says a faculty member

of ethnic studies.  "So I try to vary the class activities by

dividing the class period into three segments."

For the first 20 minutes of class time, he builds up to a

discussion question by presenting evidence, facts or issues. 

The next 30-40 minutes is devoted to student discussion even

though the class has several hundred students.  The instructor

asks students for possible explanations or interpretations of

the facts or issues presented in the first part of lecture. 

For example, in his discussion of the Chinese Exclusion Act he will

ask why it was passed at that particular time rather than in an

earlier or later period.  Students offer possible

reasons which he records on the board, and elaborates, probes

or interprets.

The last 20-30 minutes of class is spent analyzing the

discussion and bringing the topic to a conclusion.  Finally he ends

the period by posing a question which students are to

think about before the next class meeting.

Incorporating discussion into large lectures classes takes

careful preparation:  the questions posed to students need to

be identified in advance and their responses anticipated in

order to ensure a productive discussion.  Nevertheless, this

approach is very effective for engaging students' interest and

encouraging analytical thinking.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !55!Making One of the Lecture Periods a Discussion Section!

                                         Suggestion Number:  55

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Form discussion groups in large lecture classes

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Turning one of the lecture periods into a discussion section.

An engineering professor teaches a lecture course which

enrolls about 40 students.  Because of its size, there is no

Teaching Assistant for the class and no formally scheduled

discussion section.

"I believe that discussion is quite important, but the current size

of 40+ students prohibits useful exchange in the lecture

setting," he says.  As a result, he decided to restructure one of

the lecture meetings into two discussion sections.

On Mondays and Wednesdays he lectures to the class.  On

Fridays, students meet in two different sections (15-25

students in each group) to discuss the material.  The faculty

member conducts both discussion sections.

Although it might be difficult to schedule a convenient time

for one of the sections (the other can meet during regular

lecture hours), the benefits seem worth the effort to this

instructor.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  Classes too large for discussion & too small for Tas 

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !56!Moving Around the Room to Promote Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  56

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Decrease comments directed solely to you as the teacher

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Moving around the room in a way which will promote discussion.

A professor of business administration finds that the way in

which he moves around the room alters the kinds of interaction he

is able to generate among the students.  "When a student

asks a question, it is natural for an instructor to move

toward that student," he points out.  "However, this tends to

exclude the other students and focuses the interaction between the

teacher and each participating student in a series of

dialogues.

"In order to draw the other students into the discussion and

to get them to address their comments to one another as well

as to me, I find that it helps if I move away from the student who

is speaking rather than towards him or her.  This forces

the student to project so that everyone is drawn into the

conversation.  It also makes it more likely that the student

will address fellow students."

A teacher of social welfare adds that she has found it useful

to use nonverbal gestures to get students to address their

comments to one another.  "A wave of the hand or a nod of the

head is generally sufficient to indicate that a student should be

addressing a question or comment to another student and not to me,"

she says.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section 

#card !SECTION ELEVEN!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--RESPONDING TO STUDENT QUESTIONS!

!57!Number 57:  Redirect student questions.!

!58!Number 58:  Paraphrase student questions.!

!59!Number 59:  Postpone student questions.!

!60!Number 60:  Admit when you don't know the answer.!

!61!Number 61:  Understand why students repeat the same questions.!

#end

#card !57!Redirecting Student Questions!

                                         Suggestion Number:  57

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Invite students to share their knowledge

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Respond to student questions

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Redirecting student questions.

Whenever you have reason to believe that there are students in the

class who know the answer to a student's question, it is

useful to redirect the question to one of those students or to the

class as a whole.  A professor in the social sciences, for example,

says that in the discussion section he tries hard not to answer

students' questions directly unless he doubts that

anyone in the class would be in a position to give the correct

response.

"Even in lecture classes, I often use this technique," he

says.  "It tends to involve the other students more with the

question and it illustrates how fellow students can be a

resource for learning."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !58!Paraphrasing Student Questions!

                                         Suggestion Number:  58   

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions

      *  Avoid private dialogues in the classroom

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Paraphrasing student questions.

"In a large class it is important either to repeat students'

questions or to integrate the question into your responses,"

a teacher in the biological sciences notes.  "Otherwise, many

of the students will not have heard the question and you will

find yourself in a private dialogue in which the class does

not participate.

Another teacher notes the importance of paraphrasing students'

questions especially if it is not clear what the question is.  This

professor says to the students, "If I understand your

question, you want to know under what conditions X does not

function in that way.  Is that correct?"

Often by paraphrasing a very narrow question, a teacher is

able to elevate the question to a higher order and incorporate both

the specific and the general case in his or her response.  This

tends to increase the interest level of the students.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None, but especially useful in large classes

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !59!Postponing Student Questions!

                                         Suggestion Number:  59

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions

      *  Handle lengthy, tangential or irrelevant questions

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Postponing students' questions which go beyond the current

focus of discussion.

Sometimes students ask questions which go beyond the topic of

discussion.  These are questions which anticipate an upcoming

topic, take a topic to a deeper level than expected, or raise

a new issue.  The question may be important to the student,

but irrelevant for the current discussion.  The teacher must

decide either to put the question aside for after class or to

deal with it at the moment.

Most faculty members agree that questions which require a

lengthy response or divert discussion from its major focus

should be postponed.

As one economics professor explains, "When those circumstances

arise, I usually say, "If I indulge this question, it will

lead to this, which will lead to that, which will take us off

the main track.  If you are interested, please see me after

class.'"  Likewise, a history professor notes, "If a student

asks a question about a topic I am going to address more

formally in a later lecture, I ask the student to make note of the

question and bring it up again."

If you are able to postpone students' questions with humor, it

makes it less likely that they will feel "stupid," or "put-

off" by your response.  Some faculty members, for example,

respond by saying something like, "Andrew, you anticipate me

by two full weeks.  If you can wait that long it is my hope

that we will all share your thirst for knowledge on this

point."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !60!Admitting When You Don't Know the Answer!

                                         Suggestion Number:  60

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Admitting when you don't know the answer to a student's

question.

"Students don't expect you to know everything," notes a

professor of architecture.  "They admire your candor when you

tell them you don't know, and they appreciate your interest

when you find out the answer and tell them later."

"It's far worse to fake it than to say `I don't know that, but it's

a good question and I'll try to find out the answer for

you,'" says a professor of art history.  Similarly, if you are not

sure of the answer it is better to say, "I'm not sure. 

Let me think about it," than to just give the wrong answer and then

try to correct it later.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !61!Understanding Why Students Repeat the Same Questions!

                                         Suggestion Number:  61

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Understanding why students repeat the same questions.

"I used to be impatient with a student who asked a question

which had been asked and answered earlier," says a professor

of computer science.  "Only after several years did I come to

understand that such students are not necessarily stupid or

inattentive.  I learned instead that a student can only ask a

question after the material has registered with him, after it

begins to make sense."

"Although one student may have asked the question the day

before, other students may not have `heard' (i.e.  understood)

either the question or the answer.  Only later, when the

material `clicks', does that same question become meaningful

to for them.  Indeed it appears as a `new' question for them

and they are now receptive to the answer.

"I try to keep this in mind and patiently answer all relevant

questions.  I try to use different language or different

examples, hoping that this will make it clear without boring

those who grasped the idea a day or two earlier."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !SECTION TWELVE!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--HELPING STUDENTS PREPARE FOR DISCUSSIONS!

!62!Number 62:  Explain the purpose of discussion.!

!63!Number 63:  Create an appropriate physical setting for discussion.!

!64!Number 64:  Identify discussion questions/issues in advance.!

!65!Number 65:  Have students read different books and journal articles !

            as a basis for discussion.

!66!Number 66:  Use an assignment as a basis for discussion.!

!67!Number 67:  Use an opinion questionnaire as a basis for discussion.!

!68!Number 68:  Assign students specific leadership responsibilities.!

!69!Number 69:  Begin with common experiences.!

!70!Number 70:  Divide the class into smaller groups.!

!71!Number 71:  Prompt discussion through the use of key phrases! on

            index cards.

!72!Number 72:  Try brainstorming techniques.!

#end

#card !62!Explaining the Purpose of Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  62

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Explaining the purpose of discussion.

To get students involved in class discussion, it is helpful to

explain the value of their participation and what they can

expect to get out of the experience.

A professor of business administration stresses the importance of

explaining the benefits of discussion with students. 

"Students don't know how to participate in a seminar so I make a

point of telling them what skills they will acquire:  how to speak

and discuss their ideas, how to listen and respond to

others' ideas."

In seminars, especially, many faculty members find that it is

worthwhile taking some time to teach the students how to

listen to others, how to paraphrase, how to involve other

members of the group.  "Students have to understand that in a

seminar they share the responsibility for making the

discussion a worthwhile experience for us all," says one

social science teacher.  "This is a new idea for most of

them."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  Small discussion classes or seminars

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !63!Creating An Appropriate Setting for Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  63

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Create a climate for discussion

      *  Decrease student to teacher exchanges

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Creating an appropriate physical setting for the discussion.

It is difficult for students to talk to people they cannot

see.  In a typical classroom, with fixed seats facing forward,

students tend to direct their comments to the front of the

room - to the teacher - rather than to other students.  This

arrangement encourages one-to-one dialogues rather than group

discussion.  If, on other hand, students can see each other,

they are more likely to interact with one another as well as

with the teacher.

A circle or U-shaped arrangement of chairs is the most useful

for discussion.  Instructors also find that if they sit with

the students rather than stand or sit on a table, it helps

promote true class discussion in place of student-faculty

exchanges.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  Classes of fewer than 50 students

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !64!Identifying Discussion Questions/Issues in Advance!

                                         Suggestion Number:  64

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for discussion

      *  Provide a stimulus for discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Identifying discussion questions in advance.

Students are more inclined to participate when they know the

focus or intent of the discussion.  A preview of the

discussion topics can help students organize their thinking

and prepare to express their views.  Several faculty members

develop discussion questions in advance and distribute them to

their students.

"In my education course," one professor explains, "I give

students a series of four to eight discussion questions on

each week's reading assignment.  These are spelled out in the

course syllabus which is handed out during the first week of

class.  Each student is responsible for all the questions in

any given week.  These questions serve both as study aids and

stimuli for discussion."

A professor of engineering and another in English do not hand

out lists of questions until one or two weeks before the topic is

to be discussed.  This makes it possible for them to design

questions which incorporate issues related in earlier

discussions.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !65!Using Books and Journal Articles As A Basis for Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  65

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Motivate students to do their best work

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Allowing students to select different books and journal

articles as a basis for discussion.

A forestry professor who employs this technique gives students a

bibliography of 20-30 research articles for each of six

major topics in his course.  "I tell the students to read

until they feel that they are familiar enough with the basic

concepts, research methods and findings, to take a quiz and

participate in a discussion of the topic," he says.  By

requiring some level of mastery of each topic and yet giving

the students the opportunity to select among readings, he

finds that many students read extensively in the areas of

greatest interest to them.

"The quizzes are 10 minutes long and consist of three short

answer or short essay questions.  The questions are at a

conceptual level high enough to allow students to respond

regardless of which articles they chose to read," he explains.

A class discussion of the topic follows the quiz.  "Because

the students have not read identical sets of articles, these

discussions allow them to share complementary knowledge.  I

try to get them to generate their own question, to take

positions, to engage in debate," he says.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subject matter which lends itself to this approach

Course Level:  Primarily upper division or graduate

 Course Size:  Small enough for discussion

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !66!Using Student Writing Assignments As A Basis for Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  66

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Help students prepare for discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using students' writing assignments as the basis for

discussion.

An engineering professor identifies several key questions or

issues which are given to students a week or two before they

are to be discussed.  Students prepare written responses of no more

than one typewritten double-spaced page.  As a result of

writing their answers, students come to class well prepared to

discuss the material.  Their written responses are turned in

at the beginning of the period and are subsequently graded, as is

their participation in the discussion of the topic.

A history professor uses a similar strategy.  In the first

week of class he gives a few short writing assignments, each

of which can be completed in one or two short paragraphs. 

"It's hard to provoke discussion at the beginning of the term

by simply tossing out a broad query to the class," he says. 

"Assigning a specific topic to write about helps students

prepare for the discussion.  Later, when the students are more

comfortable with each other and with me, this kind of formal

preparation is less necessary."

A professor of business administration uses the same approach

throughout the term.  Each week a "reaction" paper is due

which requires students to write one to three pages on a

specific topic, typically responding to a controversial issue.  The

papers are graded and used as the basis for class

discussion.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !67!Using Opinion Questionnaires As A Basis for Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  67

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Discuss points of view other than your own

      *  Get the discussion started

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Having students complete a brief opinion questionnaire and

using the results as a basis for discussion.

A faculty member of business administration has found this

approach to be particularly effective.  "The first seminar

session generally begins with a questionnaire asking for

opinions on a variety of issues that will be covered in the

course.  Each week we begin by analyzing the questionnaire

results on the relevant topic and talking about the views of

political economy revealed by the students' answers," he

explains.

This device is very effective in starting discussion and

helping students (and the professor) get to know one another's

views.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects which involve different points of view

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !68!Assigning Students Specific Leadership Responsibilities!

                                         Suggestion Number:  68

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for discussion

      *  Give students experience as group leaders

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning students specific leadership responsibilities.

"I find this procedure very effective in getting students to

take responsibility for class discussions," notes an

architecture professor.  Students select topics for which they will

serve as discussion leaders.  The number of leaders per

topic depends on the size of the class (usually from one to

three students per topic).  Each student leads a discussion

two or three times per semester."

"The leader's task is to prepare a set of three to six

discussion questions regarding the reading material.  These

discussion questions are handed out to the rest of the class

the week before the topic is covered.  The leaders assume

responsibility for generating and facilitating the discussion

in a format upon which they have previously agreed."

A version of this strategy specific to literature courses is

used by another professor.  Each week a team of students is

responsible for conducting the seminar.  They do not hand out

questions in advance, but they are expected to come prepared

to lead the discussion. One member of the team prepares an

autobiographical sketch of the author being studied; the other

student introduces the novel and the key issues to be

discussed.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subject matter which can be presented by students

Course Level:  Mainly upper division or graduate

 Course Size:  Fewer than 20

        Mode:  Lecture/discussion

#end

#card !69!Beginning With Questions Based On Common Experiences!

                                         Suggestion Number:  69

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Get the discussion started

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning the discussion with questions based on common

experiences.

Students often feel more comfortable talking about an

experience they have in common:  a field trip, a slide show,

a demonstration, a film, a book, an exhibit, etc.  A shared

experience can stimulate good discussion because, as they

exchange their observations, students frequently discover that they

have different perceptions and reactions to the same

event.  The discussion can then focus on how and why

perceptions vary.

An English and a history teacher both apply this technique to

their courses. "I like to begin my discussions with a question all

students can answer," explains the history professor,

"usually dealing with how students felt about the reading." 

The English professor begins discussion by asking students'

reactions to the novel.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !70!Using Small Groups!

                                         Suggestion Number:  70

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Prepare students for effective discussion

      *  Give students experience in conducting and evaluating    

         discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Dividing the class into smaller groups.

An education professor divides his class into groups of six to

eight students.  Each group is assigned a specific question or

topic to discuss, selected from a list of questions prepared

in advance.  But, because students do not know beforehand

which questions their group will be assigned, they must be

prepared to discuss all of them.

The professor assigns one student in each group to be the

discussion leader, another to be the group's summarizer, and

a third to be the group's evaluator.  Each group conducts its

discussion in what it feels is the most effective manner. 

During discussion, the faculty member moves back and forth

among the groups, noting any issues he may want to bring up or

clarify at the end of the class.

After the groups have discussed their respective topics, they

are called back together and each group summarizer presents

the results of that group's discussion, highlighting key terms or

other information felt to be important.  Each group's

evaluator then provides some observations on how well the

group functioned and makes suggestions as to how it might have

functioned more effectively.  During the course of the term,

each student serves at least once as a group discussion

leader, a summarizer, and an evaluator."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Seminar/discussion

#end

#card !71!Using Key Phrases to Prompt Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  71

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Get the discussion started

      *  Develop students' impromptu speaking

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Prompting discussion through the use of key phrases on index

cards.

Before class, an education professor prepares a set of 3 x 5

index cards, each containing an important phrase or issue

relating to the topic or readings for that week.  He makes

three to six cards depending on the amount of time he wishes

to spend on the topic.  A student draws a card out of a hat

and has three minutes to respond to the prompt.  The class

then discusses and elaborates on the student's presentation. 

At the beginning of the course, students are told that they

will be called on to speak two or three times throughout the

semester.

"I find this technique very useful in breaking the ice for

discussion," he explains.  "Furthermore, this activity gives

students a chance to polish their impromptu speaking skills."

A variation which this same teacher employs is to give the

same question to groups of two or three students and have them

discuss the issue among themselves for five to ten minutes. 

Small groups are then combined into larger groups of four to

nine students and discussion continues for another 10 minutes. 

Finally, a student is selected from each group to make a brief

presentation to the assembled class on the conclusions reached by

his or her group.

"By beginning the discussion with only two or three people,"

this teacher explains, " students are more likely to `open up' and

express their views.  In order for two people to have a

discussion, they both have to talk."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !72!Using Brainstorming!

                                         Suggestion Number:  72

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for an analytical or critical

         discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using brainstorming as a technique.

Brainstorming is a method which can be particularly effective

in getting students to consider all of the possible causes,

consequences, solutions, reasons or contributing factor to

some phenomenon.  The rules are very simple.  Students are

encourage to contribute ideas rapidly and each idea is written down

on the blackboard.  During the formation of the list no

idea is to be questioned or criticized by any member of the

class.  Spontaneity and inventiveness are to be encouraged. 

Only after a set period of time (ten minutes, for example) or

when the group has pretty well exhausted its ideas, is an

analytical or critical discussion of the ideas permitted.

"Posting" is a variation on "brainstorming" in which two or

more columns are labeled on the board.  These might be "pros"

and "cons" of an issue or "possible causes," "consequences"

and "interactions" of a phenomenon or event.  Again, criticism of

ideas is postponed until a later period to encourage

spontaneity and creativity.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects which lend themselves to creative problem- 

             solving

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#ends

#section

#card !SECTION THIRTEEN!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--SUSTAINING AND FOCUSING DISCUSSION!

!73!Number 73:  Encourage heated debates.!

!74!Number 74:  Intercede if the discussion breaks down.!

!75!Number 75:  Keep notes during discussion.!

!76!Number 76:  Assign students responsibility for summarizing! major

            points.

#end

#card !73!Encouraging Heated Debates!

                                         Suggestion Number:  73

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Discuss points of view other than your own

      *  Focus and sustain discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Encouraging heated debates.

Faculty members in several disciplines find it useful to make

leading remarks to stimulate or revitalize class discussion. 

The goal of one engineering professor, for example, is "to get the

students into such a heated debate that I can slip away to the back

of the room unnoticed and the discussion continues. 

I do this by judiciously playing the devil's advocate, saying

something provocative, and stressing the different points of

view among the students.  Once the discussion is underway, I

try to restrain myself from commenting after a student has

spoken.  In this way the students come to rely more on

themselves to `lead' the discussion."

A political science professor uses the same strategy.  "I

begin by trying to get students to disagree with one another

in order to generate ideas.  With this method there is some

sacrifice of the organization and clarity provided by

lectures, but there is no better substitute for engaging

students' minds and getting them to wrestle with the

implications of various public policy techniques."

Both instructors stress that the lively exchanges can be

generated by asking such questions as, "Who doesn't agree with

what's being said?  Will someone try to put into words an

opposite point of view or a counter position?"

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects which involve different points of view.

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  None

#end

#card !74!Interceding Only When Discussion Breaks Down!

                                         Suggestion Number:  74

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Sustain discussion

      *  Refocus a discussion which is waning or wandering

      

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Interceding if the discussion is breaking down.

Researchers of small groups have identified several indicators

which reveal that a discussion is not going well.  These

include:

       -  excessive hair-splitting or nit-picking in the group

       -  repetition of the same points over and over

       -  private conversations in subgroups

       -  monopolization of the discussion by two or more

          members

       -  members taking sides and refusing to compromise

       -  apathetic participation

In general, a faculty member can usually refocus and

revitalize a discussion with the introduction of new

questions.  If these signs of a deteriorating discussion seem

endemic to a group, however, it may be useful to shift from

working on the task to discussing the interaction itself and

the feelings of the members about the functioning of the

group.  "I believe that the process of discussion is as

important as its substance," notes a professor of

architecture.  "If a group is having difficulties maintaining

a worthwhile discussion, I confront the issue directly and get them

to talk about what is happening and why."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Discussion

#end

#card !75!Keeping Notes During Discussion!

                                         Suggestion Number:  75

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Summarize major points

      *  Focus and sustain the discussion

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Keeping notes during discussion.

Some teachers find it useful to keep a clipboard handy during

discussion so that they can jot down notes.  As the class is

discussing a topic, one education professor makes notes about

important points, confusing concepts, or ideas that may have

been overlooked in the discussion.  At the end of the period,

he makes a brief summary of the topics discussed, reinforcing

the main points, and clarifying or elaborating as appropriate.

A professor of engineering employs a similar strategy, but he

interjects his comments during the course of discussion.  "I

summarize and make remarks that will get the discussion back

on track, or I shift the discussion from an issue that has

already been adequately dealt with to a new one."

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode: Discussion

#end

#card !76!Having Students Summarize Major Points!

                                         Suggestion Number:  76 

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Summarize major points

      *  Teach students to become active listeners

YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning students responsibility for summarizing the major

points.

"At the beginning of the discussion," says a professor of

architecture, "one or two students are selected to be the

summarizers.  Their charge is to take notes, raise questions,

and clarify points, so that they can provide a brief five

minute summary of the major issues, concerns and conclusions

generated during the discussion."

A variation on this technique is for the professor to tell the

class, at the beginning of the discussion, that someone will

be called on to summarize, but not identify who that student

will be.  This strategy is designed not only to encourage

students to participate more actively in the discussion but to

listen more carefully for the main ideas, since they may be

called upon to give the summary.

Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None

Course Level:  None

 Course Size:  None

        Mode:  Discussion

#end

#ENDS

#card !help!GETTING AROUND!

Getting around in the Teaching Tips HyperDeck is easy\!

In the bottom left corner you'll see the page number

   you're currently on.  Click the right mouse button to

   advance a card.  Click the left mouse button to 

   retreat a card.

If a slide-bar appears on the right side of your screen,

   this means there is more than one screenful of infor-

   mation.  Click and hold your left mouse button on the

   "elevator" and you'll move down through the card in

   large chunks, or click once at the top or bottom of

   the slide-bar and move up or down the card one line

   at a time.  [Try this now\!]

The small dot in the lower right corner of the screen

   will allow you to "drag and size" the screen.  [Try this

   now, and beneath the current card you'll see your DOS

   environment\!]

The arrows in the upper right corner will also size your

   screen-page by zooming to small or full-screen size.

   [!$cowB!Note:!  If you've sized your screen to a medium

   width already, these arrows will cycle through small,

   medium, and large.]

Click your left mouse button on "TofC" in the menu bar

   at the top of your screen to return to the Table of

   Contents and choose a new topic at any time.  A high-

   lighted bar will appear on the subject card you pre-

   viously selected.

#cl  !$COYa!Other Menu Bar Items:!

HOME     Go to the first card in the deck (the "Home" card)

UNDO     Undo the last jump

BACK     Go back one position on bookmark tape

FORWARD  Go forward one position on bookmark tape

SEARCH   Search the list of card topics by string

PgUp     Go to previous card in the deck sequence

PgDn     Go to next card in the deck sequence

TOP      Go to top of section

MARK     Place a bookmark

PRINT    Print the current card

EXPORT   Print the card to a file

QUIT     Quit the deck and return to DOS

#end

#card !about_card!ABOUT THE DECK!

#show captions off

#cl A Teaching Tips HyperDeck

#cl Copyright (c) 1991 University of California, Irvine

#end

#ends